Expanding on the fortigenic thought of Strümpfer (1995, 2013), Wissing and Van Eeden (1997) reasoned that understanding psychological strengths is not exhaustive
and that an exploration of the nature, dynamics and manifestations of psychological well-being is needed as well as the enhancement thereof (Coetzee & Cilliers, 2001; Wissing & Van Eeden, 1997, 2002). Considered as the science of psychological strengths, psychofortology focuses on psychological well-being and the development of human capacities (Coetzee & Cilliers, 2001). Research within this sub-discipline has focused on the nature, structure and/or dimensions of psychological well-being, specifically to determine whether a general psychological well-being factor exists (see Wissing & Van Eeden, 2002) and overlaps in the various facets thereof in individualist and collectivist cultural contexts (see Wissing & Temane, 2008).
Given that salutogenic and fortigenic thought informed the development of the psychological sub-discipline of psychofortology (see Coetzee & Cilliers, 2001; Strümpfer, 2013), I now turn to discussing intrapersonal constructs as strength resources that help individuals cope despite difficult circumstances. Although the constructs discussed in the following section originated from salutogenic and fortigenic thought, such as the sense of coherence construct which originated from Antonovsky’s salutogenesis theory, as guided by the article of Coetzee and Cilliers (2001), I opted to discuss them under psychofortology as it is a holistic orientation which encompasses both fortigenic and salutogenic constructs.
4.3.4.1 Psychofortology constructs
Sense of coherence (SOC), which is viewed by Antonovsky as the “answer to the
salutogenic question” (Eriksson, 2017, p. 95), is a global orientation which reflects the way an individual makes sense of the world and responds to stressful situations in order to stay healthy (Eriksson, 2017). SOC comprises of three components, namely, comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness (Antonovsky, 1996). The cognitive component, comprehensibility, refers to the way an individual perceives stimuli from their environment and determines whether these stimuli are understandable, structured and predictable. The behavioural component,
manageability, refers to the belief that the individual has resources at their disposal to
component, refers to the desire to resolve the stimuli (Coetzee & Cilliers, 2001; Eriksson & Mittelmark, 2017).
As Rotter (1966) proposed, locus of control attributes perceptions pertaining to the outcomes of events as contingent or independent of an individual. A belief in external control interprets the outcomes of events as being independent of the actions of the individual. On the other hand, a belief in internal control regards the outcomes of events as being contingent on the behaviour of that individual. Self-efficacy, which is considered a central mechanism in human agency, pertains to judgements concerning capabilities. These judgements influence motivation and behaviour and determine the effort that will be expended in relation to a specific action and the length of perseverance required in the face of adversity (Bandura, 1982). According to Bandura (1982), self-efficacy judgements influence the choice of activities: activities that exceed an individual’s coping capabilities will be avoided, whereas activities that can be managed capably will be undertaken. Hardiness, as proposed by Kobasa (1979), is regarded as a personality characteristic that moderates the onset of illness in response to stress. According to Kobasa (1979), individuals who stay healthy during times of high stress exhibit more hardiness. Hardiness consists of three characteristics, namely, a strong commitment to activities, control over the events in one’s life and viewing change as a challenge for further development (Kobasa, 1979).
Ben-Sira (1985) suggested that potency is a mechanism which alleviates tension in the coping-stress-disease relationship, and refers to an individual’s self-confidence in their abilities to meet the demands of life as a result of experiencing successful coping in the past. As potency combines intrapersonal (individual capacity) and interpersonal (society) components, the interaction between the person and their environment needs to be considered part of the coping process. Successful coping is facilitated by perceptions of the predictability and meaningfulness of the social environment. On the other hand, learnt resourcefulness, a term coined by Rosenbaum (1989), refers to a range of behavioural and cognitive self-control skills that an individual uses to self- regulate emotional and cognitive responses when faced with stressful situations. Accordingly, Rosenbaum (1989, 1993) identifies three kinds of self-control processes, namely, redressive, reformative and experiential. Redressive self-control is used to
control responses to redress the disruption of normal functioning. In an attempt to change harmful behaviour, reformative self-control is used to adopt new behaviour. Lastly, experiential self-control enables individuals to experience pleasurable activities.
According to Strümpfer (2003), the following constructs advance fortigenesis and are regarded as variables which create resistance to burnout:
Engagement is defined by Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, and Bakker (2002)
as “a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterised by vigor, dedication, and absorption” (p. 74). Vigour entails having high energy levels and mental resilience while working, willingness to invest effort in one’s work and persistence when faced with difficulties. Dedication is characterised as having a sense of significance, enthusiasm, pride and challenge. The third dimension, absorption, entails being fully concentrated and deeply engrossed in one’s work. In the literature, engagement has been found to be a unique predictor of and contributor to well-being (Schueller & Seligman, 2010; Vella-Brodrick, Park, & Peterson, 2009). In the fortigenic sense, meaningfulness, also considered a motivational component in the salutogenic construct of the sense of coherence, entails creating higher-order meaning by searching for existential significance (Strümpfer, 2006). Searching for meaning is a common response to challenge and forms part of our cognitive reaction when struggling toward strength. It also enables individuals to attain mental health (Strümpfer, 2003, 2006). According to Strümpfer (2003), there are meaning-providing (intrinsic aspirations) and meaning-destroying (extrinsic aspirations) variables.
Subjective well-being, which is viewed as the antithesis of burnout and the primary
concern of fortology (Strümpfer, 2003, 2006), is regarded as an important fortigenic construct and will be discussed in detail in section 4.4.1 of this chapter.
As a result of the overemphasis on cognition in the salutogenic orientation, Strümpfer (2003) has placed renewed emphasis on positive emotions in fortigenesis. Positive emotions in relation to a personally meaningful occurrence (object), are typically brief and fit into discrete categories of emotion families such as joy and fear (Fredrickson, 2001). According to Fredrickson (2001), positive emotions serve as indicators of well-
being and cultivating positive emotions can lead to improved well-being. Coping is viewed as an activity, which is used to master, reduce or minimise intrapsychic or environmental demands that represent potential threats or losses (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997). In attempting to anticipate or detect potential stressors, proactive coping is used to prevent or modify a stressful event prior to its occurrence. Anticipatory coping, on the other hand, entails preparing for the consequences of a likely stressful event.
The preceding section provided a discussion on a coping, strength and resource orientation to understanding well-being. These orientations are not exhaustive, however, and hedonic and eudaimonic thought has also influenced research on well- being.