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Several studies have investigated the relationship between the five-factor model of personality and burnout. In this section, these findings are summarised. The most consistent findings show that Neuroticism and Extraversion are strongly related to burnout; however, evidence does show that all five factors are associated with burnout (Bakker, van der Zee, Lewig, & Dollard, 2006; Morgan & de Bruin, 2010; Schaufeli &

Buunk, 2003).

2.10.1 Neuroticism

According to Langelaan, Bakker, van Doornen, and Schaufeli (2006), Zellars, Perrewe, and Hochwarter (2000), and Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), Neuroticism is the best predictor and has the strongest relation to burnout. Numerous studies have indicated a positive relationship between burnout and Neuroticism. More specifically, Neuroticism has shown to be positively related to emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation/cynicism (Bakker, Van der Zee, Lewig, & Dollard, 2006; Bühler &

Land, 2003; Hills, Francis, & Rutledge, 2004; Kokkinos, 2007; Vallerand, Paquet, Phillippe, & Charest, 2010). Bühler and Land (2003) found that there was a positive relationship between Neuroticism and emotional exhaustion and cynicism. The relationship between Neuroticism with exhaustion and cynicism have been supported by many other researchers (Deary et al., 1996; Hills & Norvell, 1991; LePine, LePine, &

Jackson, 2004; Zellars et al., 2000), suggesting that people who score high on Neuroticism also tend to score high on emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation.

Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) suggest that individuals who score high on Neuroticism are most likely to negatively react to stressful work environments, owing to the cynical attitudes formed around job roles and towards clients. These cynical attitudes can result in employees creating negative self-evaluations of their own capabilities (Schaufeli &

Enzmann, 1998). This is supported by Schneider (2004), who suggests that individuals that score high on Neuroticism may form negative emotions in the workplace, which may lead to performing poorly, as one becomes more cautious in the workplace (Tokar,

35 Fischer, & Subich, 1998).

Bolger and Schilling (1991) and Heppner, Cook, Wright, and Johnson (1995) suggest that individuals who score high on Neuroticism show more emotional distress when in a stressful environment, and Bolger and Schilling (1991), and McCrae and Costa (1986) suggested that these individuals are most likely to use negative coping strategies, such as denying the situation, using self-criticism to bring oneself down, and holding cynical attitudes towards a situation, which leads to employees being vulnerable to burnout (Bolger & Schilling, 1991; McCrae & Costa, 1986). In support of the above, Bakker et al.

(2010) suggest that Neuroticism is positively related to job demands and psychological strain.

At the facet level, Hurt et al. (2013) show that anxiety, anger, depression, self-consciousness, and vulnerability show small to medium correlations with emotional exhaustion; and anxiety, anger, and depression show small to medium correlations with cynicism. This suggests that some or all Neuroticism facets are related to burnout.

2.10.2 Extraversion

Studies have generally indicated that there is a negative relationship between burnout and Extraversion (van den Broeck, Vansteenkiste, de Witte, & Lens, 2008). More specifically, research has demonstrated that there is a negative relationship between Extraversion and exhaustion and cynicism (van den Broeck et al., 2008). Kim, Shin, and Swanger (2009) suggest that there is a negative relationship between Extraversion and exhaustion, as employees who are highly Extraverted are more likely to be energetic and social, which creates positive work environments, relationships, and social support. Costa and McCrae (1992) suggest that individuals with a larger score on Extraversion tend to socially interact with others because they have a greater need for stimulation and have a greater need for optimism. Therefore, these individuals are most likely to use rational coping strategies and have positive reviews about themselves due to the positive emotional state that they are in (Dorn & Matthews, 1992; Watson & Hubbard, 1996).

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Van den Broeck et al. (2008) suggest that an individual who scores high on Extraversion will be able to use their positive traits of optimism, self-efficacy, and social interactions as resources to buffer the demands and stressors of the work environment and, therefore, such an employee is less likely to feel exhausted and more likely to feel energetic (van den Broeck et al., 2008). In addition, Xanthopoulou et al. (2007) support the above by finding that self-efficacy, optimism, and organisational self-esteem are positively associated with job resources and work engagement, and Bakker et al. (2010) suggest that Extraversion is positively related to job resources and organisational commitment. In contrast to the studies mentioned above, some researchers have shown that Extraversion is unrelated to burnout (Zellars et al., 2000) or that there is a positive relationship between Extraversion and burnout (Bühler & Land, 2003).

At the facet level, according to Hurt et al. (2013), two of the six facets of Extraversion, namely friendliness and cheerfulness, have a negative small to medium correlation with exhaustion. Five of the six facets of Extraversion, namely friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, and cheerfulness, have a negative small to medium correlation to cynicism (Hurt et al., 2013).

2.10.3 Openness to Experience

Research has shown that there is a positive relationship between Openness to Experience and burnout (Deary et al., 1996; Roccas et al., 2002; Zellars et al., 2002). Roccas et al.

(2002) describe that an individual who scores high on Openness to Experience is likely to set motivational goals for self-direction in the workplace. This may be in order to gain autonomy, to develop new ideas, or to be accepting and open to subordinates’ ideas within the workplace (Roccas et al., 2002). Therefore, these employees will most likely experience conflicts with their goals in relation to conformity to the organisation and security in the organisation. These may create conflict with the status quo as well as the avoidance of new and different environments (Roccas et al., 2002). These conflicts can lead to an employee having cynical attitudes towards the organisation in which he or she

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works, which can lead to this employee being vulnerable to burnout (Roccas et al., 2002).

Deary et al. (1996) and Zellars et al. (2002) found a positive relationship between Openness to Experience and depersonalisation/cynicism. In that, according to Deary et al.

(1996), individuals who have more approachable personalities were more likely to experience emotional exhaustion. Hurt et al. (2013) found no statistically significant relationships between the facets of Openness to Experience and emotional exhaustion or cynicism.

2.10.4 Agreeableness

Meier, Robinson, and Wilkowski (2006) argue that Agreeableness and burnout have a negative relationship. This negative relationship arises, as employees who score high on Agreeableness might not be affected by the negative stimuli in the work environment, which results in an individual developing high self-control and less work demands. This is due to these employees who score high on Agreeableness being self-controlled and actively being aware of negative work environments that are too demanding. These employees, therefore, can moderate these effects by removing themselves from the negative work environment or avoiding feelings of anger or aggression by removing themselves from the situation (Ahadi & Rothbart, 1994; Heaven et al., 2013).

Eisenberg et al. (2002) have emphasised that those who score high on Agreeableness may benefit from pro-active skills which are self-regulated and self-motivated. Moreover, Kohn and Schooler (1982) argue that job and personal resources play a mutual role in the shaping of a person’s learning through lived experiences and encounters, and by a person understanding the strength of their personality trait, they can create a resourceful work environment (Kohn & Schooler, 1982). Xanthopoulou et al. (2007) indicate that employees who score high on Agreeableness are more likely to focus on their job resources than their job demands, as they enjoy helping others in the workplace. This positive energy can allow these individuals to self-regulate their own thoughts and behaviours and to avoid any negative outcomes in the workplace, which will decrease exhaustion (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).

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In contrast to the above, Zellars et al. (2002) found a weak negative relationship between Agreeableness and depersonalisation/cynicism, and no relationship between Agreeableness and emotional exhaustion.. In relation to the facet level, Periard and Burns (2014) indicate that the facets of altruism, tender-mindedness, and compliance, are negatively related to emotional exhaustion. According to Hurt et al. (2013), the facet of trust is negatively correlated to exhaustion, and the facet of modesty is positively correlated to exhaustion.

2.10.5 Conscientiousness

Studies have indicated a negative relationship between burnout and Conscientiousness (McCrae & John, 1992; Kim et al., 2009). More specifically, Conscientiousness has been shown to have a negative relationship to emotional exhaustion and cynicism. McCrae and John (1992) identified two aspects of Conscientiousness which are contributors to the negative relationship between burnout and Conscientiousness. Firstly, an individual that scores high on Conscientiousness is viewed as being proactive, which describes the will to achieve motivational goals. Secondly, an individual that scores high on Conscientiousness is able to inhibit him- or herself, which describes the action of holding impulsive behaviours in check. Moreover, a negative relationship is formed as these traits of capability, achievement striving, and self-control, can be viewed as antecedents for having the motivation to resist job strain in the workplace (Taris & Schaufeli, 2016).

Kim et al. (2009) suggest that employees who score high on Conscientiousness tend to be more motivated and goal-oriented. These individuals represent traits of positive work engagement, which include vigour, commitment, and involvement; thus illustrating a negative relationship with burnout, as these individuals will be able to use resources and personal resources in order to prevent any impulsive behaviour through their self-control (Kim et al., 2009). According to Periard and Burns (2014), the facets of dutifulness and self-discipline negatively correlate with emotional exhaustion and cynicism. Hurt et al.’s (2013) research suggests that the facet of dutifulness correlates negatively to cynicism.

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Moreover, there is evidence from Periard and Burns’ (2014) research that the facet of self-discipline is the best predictor of emotional exhaustion. This may be because an individual that scores high on the facet of self-discipline is likely to self-motivate and remain determined to complete tasks (Periard & Burns, 2014).

2.11 Summary

In summary, the literature shows that burnout is a multifaceted syndrome which develops over time among employees (Freudenberger, 1974; Maslach, 1976). Burnout develops when an employee is emotionally exhausted, experiencing cynical thoughts and feelings towards his or her work and clients, and questioning his or her capability to perform the work role (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The JD-R model places emphasis on the role of demands and resources in the workplace, and how the availability of these two factors can determine whether a person is burnt out (Demerouti et al., 2001).

The development of burnout is dependent on both environmental and individual factors.

Environmental factors include the demands in the workplace. These are out of the control of the individual because when there are high demands and low resources, an individual will feel overwhelmed by strain and stress, which may cause burnout (Demerouti et al., 2001). Individual factors consist of the resources available to an individual. These can include those personality traits or facets that determine behaviour that could buffer the demands and create a positive work environment. In using these resources, an employee is more motivated, setting and reaching organisational goals as well as greater belief in his or her own abilities, which creates a sense of resilience (Taris & Schaufeli, 2016;

Xanthopoulou et al., 2007).

It is evident in the literature that personality can be viewed as a personal resource, and that it is the traits and facets of one’s personality that predicts one’s behaviour. The five-factor model of personality can be a measure used to predict burnout amongst employees by examining their traits and facets. However, when viewing personality, little research has been done in relation to the facets of the five-factor model and burnout. From the trait perspective, it can be concluded that Neuroticism and Extraversion are mostly related to

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burnout; however, there is evidence that all five factors have a relationship with burnout (van der Zee et al., 2006; Morgan & de Bruin, 2010; Schaufeli & Buunk, 2002).

41 CHAPTER 3

METHOD

3.1 Introduction

The research method is presented in this chapter. The research approach and design are described, and a description of the sample given. This is followed by the research procedure, and the instruments used to measure burnout and personality. A discussion on the statistical analyses is then provided, followed by an overview of the ethical considerations in this study.