The advent of Islam initiated a new wave of development of knowledge in the Muslim world. Influenced by Islamic teaching, Muslims developed a distinct intellectual framework which integrated religious rituals into intellectual practices. Seeking and producing knowledge are perceived not only as an intellectual pursuit but also as religious endeavour that Muslims should aspire to. The chains of relations between teacher and student in the Islamic intellectual world are considered as sacred relations, in which not only knowledge is transferred but also religious values and authority are bestowed, as has been discussed in the previous chapter. These scholars also diligently produced bodies of knowledge in their efforts to explain Islam and bring its values into practical applications. Together, these intellectual practices provided the fundamentals which constituted a greater tradition: the umma as a symbolic universe.
A symbolic universe is the amalgamation of meanings, produced by both the subjective experiences of individuals and the objectivation process of the society. It encompasses every historical and biographical event that takes place in the society. It provides a worldview by which people can identify their self and their position in the larger world and determine what is appropriate for their everyday activities. A symbolic universe is the highest form of legitimation of an idea, more powerful than languages, propositions and theories. It provides an idea with cosmological attributes giving various experiences a shared, overarching meaning (Berger and Luckmann, 1966, pp. 113–115). The development of bodies of knowledge, particularly mythology, theology, philosophy and science will strengthen a symbolic universe by providing rational explanation and normative justification for the idea established as the symbolic universe (Berger and Luckmann, 1966, p. 127).
It is possible for a society to develop different interpretations of its symbolic universality, especially during transmission of the idea from one generation to another. If this differing interpretation is shared by enough members
in the society, it will also undergo the objectivation and institutionalisation processes, resulting in an alternative definition of the social reality. The group that carries it will become what Berger and Luckmann call “the heretics” (Berger and Luckmann, 1966, p. 124). Heresy is a major danger for any society, yet, at the same time, it often becomes a turning point which inspires those who espouse the “official” interpretation of the idea to produce a more systematic conception of the symbolic universe, resulting in the development of various bodies of knowledge to support and defend the idea (Berger and Luckmann, 1966, pp. 125–126).
In the case of the development of the concept of the umma, Berger’s and Luckmann’s (1966) theoretical framework can be applied as follows: the concept of a Islamic global society firstly acquired legitimation when Muhammad uttered the concept in Arabic and attached the concept of a global society to the word “umma”. As this chapter will elaborate shortly, the usage of the word “umma” in the Qur’an subtly shifted the word’s meaning so that by the end of the Prophetic era, the word “umma” had a particular meaning attached to the concept of an Islamic global society. Attaching the idea of an Islamic global consciousness to the word “umma” was important since it opened the opportunity for dialogue on this concept among the Meccans and, later, among the Medinans. It also made the transference process of the idea to other parts of the larger Arabian society possible.
When the number of Qur’anic verses articulating the concept of the umma was increasing, this concept became more and more divine. At the same time, the Prophetic traditions kept it practical. This made the concept of umma to be perceived as a divinely sanctioned social practice, transcending any other ordinary social practices. At this time, the umma became a symbolic universe in the minds of Muslims. As a symbolic universe, the umma may be said to connect a person to another person or identify a society, but also to connect the said person to God and identify his or her place in a cosmological order. The conditions of the umma are considered as the mirror of God’s Mercy towards mankind. A joyful occurrence in the society is seen as a form of blessing from God while any turbulence in the society reflects back on the holy texts and gains meaning and position in the Islamic cosmology, whether as a trial or as a divine punishment.
The works and activities of Muslim intellectuals in later periods further strengthened the position of the umma as a symbolic universe in the minds of
Muslims. As discussed in Chapter Three, Muslim intellectuals, through their chains of intellectuals, provided the empirical evidence for the presence of a translocal connection among Muslim individuals. Yet, not only that, the scholars were also fundamental in the development of theoretical bodies which helped the maintenance of the idea of the umma in the minds of Muslims. Through interpretation of the holy texts in the Qur’an and hadith and reflection on their personal observations and experiences, these scholars expanded the Islamic bodies of knowledge, such as codifying the hadith, developing the Islamic jurisprudence and, as this chapter will demonstrate, the development of governmental theories supporting the caliphate as the governing institution of the umma.