The German Education System at Upper-Secondary Level65
Table 9 shows the number of students enrolled in different types of school at upper-secondary level (ISCED 3). This is merely a rough indicator of the size of the respective sectors due to the variety and complexity of organizational forms at upper-secondary level in Germany, for example in the category of full-time vocational schools (see Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2010: 96 on the participation rates within this category; Steinmann, 2000: 61). The two general summaries that can be drawn from Table 9 are that a large proportion of young people in Germany are enrolled in VET and that dual apprenticeship training (indicated by the number of people enrolled in part-time vocational schools) is a significant factor at the upper-secondary level.66 Dual apprenticeship training combines training in a firm with class- room teaching in part-time vocational schools and leads to a recognized certificate according to the Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz,
65 See, e.g., KMK (2012a) for a chart showing the basic structure of the German education system.
66 For critical reviews of current developments in the German VET system, see Solga (2009), Baethge, Solga, and Wieck (2007), Thelen (2007), Kupfer (2010), and Zimmer and Dehn- borstel (2009).
BBiG) or the Crafts Code (Handwerksordnung) (see, e.g., Baethge, 2008a: 543). Within the sector of full-time school-based VET, there are the follow- ing three categories of school programs: (A) One-year programs that are intended to prepare students for dual apprenticeship training (Berufsvorberei- tungsjahr and Berufsgrundbildungsjahr).67 (B) Schools that mainly provide a general education and lead to certificates that grant either general or limited access (in terms of subject areas) to one or more organizational forms in the HE sector (berufliche Schulen mit vorrangig allgemeinbildendem Charakter). Examples are the vocationally-oriented secondary school (Fachoberschule) and the specialized academic upper-secondary school (berufliches Gymnasi- um). (C) Schools leading to certificates that fully qualify individuals to enter a specific occupation, for instance the full-time vocational schools (Berufsfachschulen) and the schools in the health-care sector (Schulen des Gesundheitswesens) (see, e.g., Steinmann, 2000: 64–70; Baethge, Solga, and Wieck, 2007). The latter form (C) does not stand in direct competition with dual apprenticeship training as it mostly focuses on different types of occupa- tions (e.g., Steinmann, 2000: 71). In comparison to VET, the structure of general academic education at upper-secondary level is less complex as it is mainly offered by the academic secondary schools (Gymnasium) and leads to a general higher education entrance certificate (Abitur) (see KMK, 2012b). Table 9: Students at upper-secondary level (ISCED 3), Germany, 2010
Absolute %
Total 3,780,320 100
General schools (allgemeinbildend) 1,092,300 29
Vocational schools (beruflich) 2,688,020 71
Of which:
Full-time vocational schools Part-time vocational schools
934,050 1,753,970
Source: KMK (2011b: X); translation and calculation of % values by LG
The German Education System at Post-Secondary Level
In the higher VET sector, trade and technical schools and Meister (Master craftsman) schools offer further vocational training targeted at the holders of initial VET (IVET) qualifications who are seeking to become technicians or Meister (either on full-time or part-time courses) (see CEDEFOP, 2011: 69– 70). The German HE system is dominated by universities and universities of applied sciences (see Table 10) and, hence, this short section focuses on these two organizational types. The universities provide academic education at post-secondary level, the traditional Leitidee (rationale) of the German uni-
67 See, e.g., Baethge, Solga, and Wieck (2007) and Powell, Graf, Coutrot et al. (2009) for a critical review of this so-called “transition-system.”
versities being the combination of teaching and research (see, e.g., Mayer, 2008; Powell, Bernhard, and Graf, 2012b). Compared to universities of applied sciences, teaching at universities is typically more theory-oriented and research more oriented to basic/fundamental research (Grundlagen- forschung). Universities of applied sciences were introduced in the late 1960s/early 1970s as a new organizational form at HE level that focuses on more practical studies in fields such as economics, engineering, social work, and health (see Section 6.3.1 for more details).
Table 10: HE institutes and student enrolment in Germany, 2011/12
Types of HE insti- tute
No. of institutes Students absolute Students % Universities 104______ 1,542,226______ 64.9_______ Universities of applied sciences 203______ 744,150______ 31.3_______ Academies of art 51______ 33,340______ 1.4_______ Public administration colleges 29______ 31,654______ 1.3_______ Teacher training colleges 6______ 23,221______ 1.0_______ Theological colleges 16______ 2,443______ 0.1_______ Total 409______ 2,377,034______ 100_______
Source: Data retrieved from DESTATIS (2012c, b); sorted by number of students en- rolled; translation and calculation of % values by LG
Governance and Key Stakeholders in the German Education System
The modes of governance for VET and academic/HE sectors differ: The academic secondary schools (Gymnasien) and the HE institutes are regulated by the 16 Länder (federal states) (KMK, 2011a). Initial vocational training in enterprises is regulated by a number of federal laws, while the legal basis for in-school vocational training is provided by Länder legislation (CEDEFOP, 2011: 38). Close cooperation between employers, trade unions, and the state is one of the central tenets of the German VET system (e.g., Baethge, 2008a). At the federal level, the ministry responsible for education and research is the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (BMBF, 2011). The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), which is subordinate to the BMBF, plays an important role in developing profiles for VET programs in cooperation with the social partners (BIBB, 2012a).
The trade unions are engaged in the collective bargaining process and in several functions in the governance of the dual apprenticeship training system
(see, e.g., Baron, 2007: 16–22 for details).68 On the employers’ side, there are three types of interest organizations. One of the major tasks of the employers’ associations (Arbeitgeberverbände) is representing employers’ interests during the process of collective bargaining.69 The trade associations (Wirtschaftsverbände) are specialized in lobbying for business interests within the political system.70 The chambers of industry and commerce (Indus-
trie- und Handelskammern, IHK) are responsible for a number of tasks of economic self-governance, such as the testing system for apprentices.71 While membership of the employers’ associations and the trade associations is voluntary, membership of the chambers is compulsory (except for handicraft and agricultural enterprises) (Andersen and Woyke, 2003).
The five major parties in the German political system are the conserva- tive Christian Democratic Union (Christlich Demokratische Union Deutsch- lands, CDU)72, the center-left Social Democratic Party (Sozialdemokratische
Partei Deutschlands, SPD), the pro-business Free Democratic Party (Freie Demokratische Partei, FDP), the Left Party (Die Linke), and the Alliance ‘90/The Greens (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen) (see, e.g., Spiegel Online, 2009; Niedermayer, 2006).73 Broadly speaking, while the FDP and the CDU tend to be more oriented towards business interests, the SPD and the Left Party have closer links to the trade unions (Seibring, 2010). The historical process analy- sis in this chapter refers to the above-mentioned actors.
There is one relatively new but rapidly growing educational organization in the German skill formation system that combines central institutional elements from both VET and HE, namely the dual study programs, which are introduced in the following section.
68 Most, but not all, trade unions are organized within the Confederation of German Trade Unions (Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund, DGB) (Seibring, 2010). For general descriptions of the system of trade unions in Germany, see, e.g., Esser (2003) or Schroeder (2003). 69 The umbrella organization of the employers’ associations is the Confederation of German
Employers’ Associations (Bundersvereinigung der Deutschen Arbeitgeberverbände, BDA). 70 The umbrella organization of the trade associations is the Federation of German Industry
(Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie, BDI).
71 The umbrella organization of the regional chambers of commerce is the Association of German Chambers of Industry and Commerce (Deutscher Industrie- und Handelskammer-
tag, DIHK).
72 The CDU’s sister party in Bavaria is the Christian Social Union of Bavaria (Christlich-
Soziale Union in Bayern, CSU).
73 The parties are listed according to the results of the parliamentary elections in 2009 (see Wahlrecht.de, 2009), i.e. the party that received the most votes is listed first.