In this section, the research process is discussed and the utilization of the research model explained, figure 4.2.1
Process outline
This section outlines the research process as depicted in figure 4.2.1. There were four main parts to the process with some overlaps between and within them. Different stages were occasionally revisited. First is the considerative stage that
99
involved finding information and depicted in figure 4.2.1 as items 1 – 5. Secondly the practical stage of the process begins with planning and designing the
interviews, items 6 – 13. The third stage covers selecting the sample and
interviews, 14 – 17, following which is the fourth diagnostic stage of assembling the data for analysis and findings, items 18 – 20. These stages are described in detail in the following section with the corresponding numbers from the bubbles in figure 4.2.1 displayed in brackets, for example [1 - 3].
Figure 4.2.1 Research process
.
4.2.2 Formulating the research questions [1 – 3]
Initially the research proposal [1] was to examine the practicalities of extending CSR theory by expanding the responsibility for implementing as an obligation incumbent on all managers. This would be similar to the way in which equality and diversity policies were transferred from a discrete section dealing with ‘equal opportunities’ to becoming a normative management duty. An interest emanating from an MBA, which touched on the works of Follett, prompted an idea to
100
approach the proposal of CSR as a management obligation and to ask, if she were here today, how would she operationalise CSR through managers? This led to the research objectives [2] and a group of research questions to address the research proposal and aim [3] and the choice of a literature review to begin the process.
4.2.3 Literature review [4]
A review of all associated literature [4] consumed a significant proportion of the time available to conduct this research. At the outset, the literature review [4] comprised three main strands: management theory in relation to CSR, concepts and theories of CSR, and the works of Mary Parker Follett. The final literature review which reported on CSR and Follett, identified themes that were compatible or incompatible with the works of Follett. These themes were augmented by information obtained from news items, company reports and discussions with scholars, managers and other individuals in associated areas.
4.2.4.1 Historical foundations of literature
Establishing the historical context of Follett’s work was important in order to gain an insight into the relevance of her work and its place in the literature reviewed. Therefore, on 25th September, 2012, information was obtained during a visit to the Schlesinger Library on the History of Women of America, at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, Boston, Mass., USA. Here original documents were accessed relating to Follett’s time as a student at Harvard in the 1890’s. Handwritten essays were made available to read and photograph, which put into perspective the intellectual foundations and range of subjects studied by Follett that led to her holistic and practical approach to management. Viewing these essays was an important element in the motivation for this research and placed researching Follett into context. This was because against the odds as a woman in Victorian times with restricted access to academia and work, Follett developed concepts about society and management that resonated with the world of 2012. Yet it was important to retain as much objectivity as possible in order to progress the concept of CSR and to honour Follett’s integrity and her scientific approach to her own research. Nevertheless, discovering Follett’s ideas was a
101
major part of the motivation for this research, which offered the opportunity to inform a wider audience about Follett whilst seeking ways to advance CSR.
4.2.5 Research method and ethical approval [5]
As the literature and associated information on CSR grew with time and events, the research objectives [2] were adjusted and eventually an appropriate research method was devised and ethically approved [5].
The use of hermeneutics in the interpretative paradigm meant that interviews were chosen as the most appropriate method. The ethics committee of the University of Salford approved the research and its methods in July 2012 [5]. Kvale and
Brinkmann (2009) note that interviewing is a ‘moral enquiry’ (2009:62), therefore, certain safeguards and moral issues need to be taken into account. The methods selected are compatible with guidelines issued by the Social Research Association (SRA) particularly in terms of anonymity, privacy, and confidentiality
(http://www.the-sra.org.uk/ethics.htm). Furthermore, the sensitive nature of
enquiring into CSR and seeking views on an organization’s policy, practices and procedures, meant that particular attention was paid to confidentiality (Blumberg, Cooper and Schindler, 2005). This was because managers were being asked about the implementation of their organization’s policy that could have led to adverse criticism of their employer. Of note was the SRA’s guidance on informed consent, agreement to audio-recording, emphasis on confidentiality, availability of transcription to respondent, and facility to opt out of the research at any time without question.
4.2.5.1 Organizational approval
Three managers from the non-profit sector were invited to participate in the research (Hair, et al, 2003:217; Maxwell, 2009). Each manager had autonomy and, whilst two were governed by the rules of the Charities Commission
(www.charitycommission.gov.uk) and their own codes of governance, they were able to contribute without permission from their organizations. An owner of a financial management proposed three managers for the study with freedom to express their views without redress given the terms of the consent procedure. Those respondents at the most senior level, (i.e. company directors, CEOs, managing directors, and the executive chairman) did not consider that they
102
needed permission to participate. All other interviewees were willing to take part and did not feel it appropriate or necessary to seek their employers’ permissions.
4.2.6 Developing the research plan; Consultations and informal interviews [6 – 12]
A less contemplative and more practical stage of the research took place during 2013 with informal interviews held during conferences and at a management development meeting [6] (Ryan and Bernard, 2003). So as to create a basic framework for interviews and to gain further insights into the impact of Follett on managers, the researcher attended an event for 21 members of the Follett Network on 25-26th October, 2012 at the University of Rouen, France [7]. Meetings and workshops took place over two days and discussion and
presentations focused on Follett’s contribution to management. The second day had a specific session devoted to Follett’s relevance to ethical and socially
responsible management. Informal interviews (Bernard, 1988)and debate during the conference provided a forum to examine ideas relating to Follett and CSR and receive advice and information about additional avenues to explore. Notes taken during these discussions were used for the research plan to examine
management in business and society and the responsibility of individual managers operationalising CSR in line with the philosophy of Follett.
Further contributions to the research plan emanated from consultations with practitioners and experts in the field of management. Three conferences were attended by the researcher during 2013, which presented the opportunity to access a range of views including those of academics and managers. ‘Gender and responsible business’ was the theme of the ICCSR annual conference at Nottingham University, which took place on 20 June, 2013 [8]. This was followed by conferences of the Academy of Management (AoM) in Florida, USA in August [9], and the British Academy of Management (BAM) in Liverpool in September 2013 [10]. All three events provided information that contributed to the research plan and questions. Of particular value were doctoral workshops which helped the researcher to clarify and practice interview questions. Additional help was given in Florida by R. Edward Freeman, renowned for his work on stakeholder theory, who
103
had expressed an interest in the researcher’s conference paper on Follett and CSR. Furthermore, a keynote speaker at the BAM conference was approached by the researcher and agreed to be interviewed.
An informal interview was conducted with a group of 30 managers assembled on 1st November, 2012 as part of a management development programme in Salford, Greater Manchester, UK [11]. During a session on managing change, an outline was presented by the researcher on the relevance of the works of Follett and CSR. Although the meeting was not audio-recorded, in order to inform subsequent lines of enquiry, notes were taken and flip-charts of main points contributed by managers were retained. Discussion in the group revolved around how the main concepts of Follett could be deployed to assist managers with regard to building relationships and to integrate conflicting interests.
Following the larger group event, seven managers agreed to contribute views on CSR and Follett [12]. At a subsequent gathering on 7th February, 2013, managers worked in pairs and a group of three to produce the main elements of what an ideal form of CSR could do to benefit both society and business. Issues were identified and discussed in a group and the individual managerial roles that drive CSR were debated. The concepts of Follett were examined in light of how managers could move CSR forward and this led to probing further and seeking ways of implementing CSR. When managers discussed commitment to CSR in a changing business environment, they brought to light fiscal imperatives emanating from the economic crisis and the challenges presented to engaging fully with CSR (Kemper and Martin, 2010). Other influences such as ethical and cultural values and the part they played influencing managers to engage with CSR were
examined. Thus the comments informed the horizon of understanding in keeping with the chosen methodology (Gadamer, 1979). The points emanating from the informal interview meeting were developed for the interview questions. This set the platform for developing an interview protocol and selecting sources of
104
4.2.7 Interview Protocol and questions [13]
Interviews were chosen as the method to conduct research, which meant that the data was obtained from an interpretation of communication (Burrell and Morgan, 2003:29; Gadamer, 1979). This necessitated framing questions which were informed by main themes, concepts and issues arising from the literature review. These were combined with opinions and answers from interviews and examined for clusters of repeated themes during the course of the interview schedule (Miles and Huberman, 1984).
From the literature review, consultations at meetings with managers, expert opinion on CSR, informal interviews, and observations [6] topics were developed for a semi-structured interview protocol (para 4.1.6.5), (Cohen and Crabtree, 2006; King and Horrocks, 2010; Kvale and Brinkmann, 2008; Ryan and Bernard, 2003). As a contingency to safeguard against a lack of respondents, a questionnaire (Oppenheim, 1992; Peterson, 2000; Saunders, et al, 2007) was devised and piloted with a senior manager and a business journalist. Ultimately, the method employed was semi-structured interviewing using a three-level questioning technique. This was the method in which the researcher had been trained and practiced as an interviewer and business and team coach. The first level in three- level questioning consists of data gathering by asking open questions, for
example, ‘As a manager, when you hear “corporate social responsibility” what springs to mind?’ Level two seeks the implications and meanings behind the answer. An example would be, ‘You say that CSR is a marketing device, how do you feel about that?’ Thus, the third level goes into deeper thoughts on the topic and explores values; so that a question would be along the lines of, ‘Why is that important to you?’ This is similar to the method described as ‘laddering’ by Easterby-Smith, et al (2002:107). Interviews are the beginning of the analysis process (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009:195), which is achieved by interviewees describing their interpretation of their world. In addition, interviewees gain insights discovering aspects about their experiences of which they were not aware.
Furthermore, the interviewee puts forward a condensed view of their opinions, with the aid of the interviewer reflecting back and summarising responses. Throughout the communication process, whether at the informal interview or semi-structured
105
stage the principles of active listening were a fundamental part of the protocol. The main aspects of this are to ensure that the listener concentrates on the communication they are receiving. This is achieved by consciously dealing with distracting thoughts, such as the next question, at the expense of hearing and understanding the answer being given (Rost and Wilson, 2013).
4.2.8 Interview questions and consent form [14]
Each semi-structured interview was planned and explorative and expected to follow a different pathway after beginning with the same question, which was succeeded by core questions as set out in appendix 1. These were to be augmented or reduced according to the level of saturation of information on specific themes evolving in the process (Kvale and Brinkmann, 2009; Ryan and Bernard, 2003). The interview format began with an introduction that reiterated the information sent to the participants with the consent form. The consent form also described the aims of the research whilst giving background information about CSR and Follett (appendix 2). These were checked for neutrality and objectivity by two of the researcher’s colleagues to ensure that prejudices about CSR and Follett were not planted in the mind of the respondents prior to interview (Bryman and Bell, 2015). Further consideration was given to the researcher’s interpretivist position which meant that detachment was limited due to the researcher’s ‘conceptual orientations’ (Miles and Huberman, 1994:8).
Nevertheless, as described in the following section, all safeguards were instituted to ensure objectivity.
4.2.8.1 Objectivity and detachment
The stresses of objectivity in this type of research were identified by Mills who wrote, ‘I have tried to be objective, I do not claim to be detached’ (Mills, 1962:11). Darlington and Dobson (2013) argue that ‘research can never be value free, or even completely impartial’ (2013:287). In cases where research can be deemed to be objective, the objectivity normally relates to the rigour of the methods used to collect, assemble and scrutinise information that answer the questions
hypothesised. Whether or not objectivity is over-rated is an issue that has been addressed by Alvesson and Wilmott (2011). One example given discusses an apparent bias against researching broad issues of gender which has meant a lack
106
progress in studying feminism in management (Alvesson and Wilmott, 2011:13). These authors suggest that partisanship towards a particular issue ought to be welcomed because it provides access to information that would not be forthcoming if the researcher were impartial and lacked an interest or passion for the issue. Such a view coincided with the emergence of feminist management ideas identified in the literature review and allowed the feminist voice of Follett to be heard, further validating the usefulness of this research (Knights and Tullberg, 2012; Marshall, 2011; Roberts, 2011).
Overall, although the ideas of CSR, Follett and associated theories were recognised by the researcher as laudable principles of management, setting objectives meant overcoming bias and a predisposition to social issues in management [2]. Thus the objectives were arrived at after consultation with academic advisors in order to ensure that objectivity was maintained and extended to selecting data sources and participants, which is explained in the following section.
4.2.9 Select data sources [15]
In order to reflect the make-up of the labour market, the Office of National Statistics (ONS) (www.ons.gov.uk) website was accessed on 19.02.13 and statistics for ‘All employment by industry, EMP 13, October 2012 to December 2012’ was used to assess the breakdown of sectors. The relevant figures were: private sector (including non-profit): 76%; public sector: 23%. At the time gender statistics displayed on the ONS website, ‘Women in the labour market’, showed that 34.5% of management posts were held by women, (www.ons.gov.uk). Although the proportion of public to private sector employers guided the selection of organizations this was not possible in the case of gender. The final make-up of the sample consisted of 81% respondents from the private sector and 19% from the public sector. A balance across industrial sectors was monitored using the Standard Industrial Classification (www.ons.gov.uk).
107 4.2.9.1 Sampling
A snowball sampling technique enabled access to relatively inaccessible
populations and elites. This method, as described by Atkinson and Flint ( 2001), involves a subject being researched recruiting another subject for the same study. However, as the diagram illustrates, although nine of the 23 respondents were recruited through this method, some acted simply as a conduit for others to be accessed. This led to four managers in the financial sector being interviewed. In addition, the snowball technique meant that other senior executives with whom the researcher might not have had contact or access were interviewed - the CEO of an NHS hospital trust being an example.
Purposive sampling was selected because it ‘demands that we think critically about the parameters of the population we are interested in’ (Silverman, 2000:104). Purposive sampling involved choosing respondents known to the researcher either personally, through networks, or, in two cases from national media, who could contribute high levels of management expertise. Whilst the main criterion for participants was that they were managers, it was necessary to obtain input that spanned across those who were in a position to decide the entire adoption and implementation of CSR and those who saw their role as peripheral or irrelevant to CSR decisions.
In summary, the typology, or categorisation of organizations selected (Stake, 1994), was based on the distribution of employment sectors and industries. This provided a richness of experiences and horizons (Gadamer, 1979; Hair, et al, 2003; Saunders, et al, 2007). With categories established, the next section explains how respondents were identified and selected for interview (Bryman and Bell, 2015).
4.2.10 Recruit participants [16] Selection criteria
Based on information from the Office of National Statistics (www.ons.gov.uk)
respondents were drawn proportionately from the sectors of employment with certain industries being pursued more actively. The reason for this was that particular industries had fared badly in terms of corporate scandals and the
108
researcher considered it important to obtain views from them. Amongst the most controversial industries were financial services, especially institutions involved in providing credit for personal lenders. Within the private sector also, comparison of practices and procedures of service and manufacturing companies was an
important factor. This was because the environmental pressure on manufacturing was expected to be greater than in other sectors. During the course of research, three managers from manufacturing and one from computer consumables
validated this point, especially in relation to managing waste and the carbon footprint (Amran, et al, 2015).
Given the size of the UK’s public sector, in particular the National Health Service (NHS) and its position as Europe’s largest employer (www.jobs.nhs.uk), contacts were pursued to secure a suitable respondent, leading to an interview with the chief executive of an NHS foundation trust. Placed between the public and private sectors exist social care services that are run as non-profit businesses. A
manager and social worker from a facility for vulnerable adults agreed to be interviewed, thereby delivering views from a sector dealing with social issues using commercial management techniques. Commissioning social and other local government services introduced similar commercial pressures into the experience and roles of the two senior executives in different borough councils in Greater