From the above, it has become apparent that no one-to-one relationship exists between the ‘original’ text and its translation. In order to provide his intended audience with an optimally relevant translation, the translator does not only need to modify his model on the level of form (e.g. because of differences in modes of expression of the source and target- languages), but, necessarily also interferes on the level of content, e.g. because of differences in the cognitive environments of the original and receptor audiences. In this paragraph I will explore the different strategies Gerard Potter has employed in order to adapt the Chroniques to a new audience. Examples taken from three chapters of Book
Three will illustrate this description.20
4.2.1. Tautology (doublet)
Compared to Froissart’s original, Potter’s translation tends to be more elaborate. In his brief study of the Middle Dutch translation of the Chroniques, J.W. Muller notes: ‘In his
translation, Potter has probably further expanded the fairly elaborate text of the original: time and again, one encounters repetitions, accumulations of the most synonymous words, etc.’.21 Muller considered these characteristics as evidence of poor literary style. However,
20 Examples have been taken from the prologue (§ 1) the election of John
I of Portugal (§ 2-4) and the events
leading up to the death of Gaston of Foix (§ 19-21). Whenever possible, I refer to the first volume of the edition of Bes 2, Book Three by P. Ainsworth and G. Croenen (Ainsworth and Croenen 2007) which comprises the first 32 chapters of the text (also accessible through the Online Froissart website). Henceforth, I refer to the division in chapters in Bes, which has been adopted by the 2007 edition. In my discussion of portions of text which extend beyond the modern edition of Bes as available at this moment (2010), I refer to
the folio numbers in the manuscript. As far as the translation is concerned, I refer to the folio numbers of the The Hague manuscript, H21 (Book Three) and the edition of De Pauw 1898 (Book Two).
in view of the relevance theory and its application to translation studies as presented above, it is worthwhile to consider alternative explanations.
The form of repetition that occurs most frequently in Gerard Potter’s translation is tautology and more specifically the use of doublets, i.e. (near) synonyms that have been connected by a coordinating conjunction. This technique has been recognized in the translations of several Middle Dutch poets. In his discussion of the translation process of the Middle Dutch (rhymed) version of the Lancelot en prose, B. Besamusca concluded that ‘(…) tautology is closely connected with the peremptory demand that Middle Dutch verses rhyme’.22 For obvious reasons, this cannot be the explanation for Gerard Potter’s abundant use of this trope.
In the majority of the doublets, the addition of a (near) synonym adds meaning or connotation to the expression used in the French-language original. Even in the opening lines of the prologue of Book Three, when Froissart states ‘Je me sui longuement tenu a parler des besoignes des loingtaines marches’, Gerard Potter’s translation is more specific. The French ‘tenu’ (here in the sense of ‘I have restrained myself’) has been translated by the doublet ‘gerust ende ghetoeft’ (‘I have paused and restrained myself), ‘parler’ (to speak) has been rendered by the doublet ‘te scriven ende te openbaren’ (to write and to reveal).23 In the first instance, the Dutch ‘gerust’ (literally ‘rested’) seems to add a sense of leisurely calm, in the second instance the Dutch text is more specific in its choice of words: the author does not ‘talk’ but ‘writes’ and in doing so ‘reveals’ information to the reader.
A clear example of this tendency towards increased specificity is the translation of the Chroniques’ objective: with his text Froissart wants to ‘exemplifier les bons qui se
desirent a avancier par armes’. In the Middle Dutch translation the rather generic ‘bons’ (good deeds? Or rather good qualities?) have become ‘der vromer duechde ende ere’. Gerard Potter has rendered the general idea of ‘good’ by means of two qualities ‘duechde’ (virtue, excellence) and ‘ere’ (honour) characteristics of ‘vromer’ (courageous men). These concepts probably give us an insight in what the translator believed to be commendable characteristics for members of the military elite, i.e. knights and squires.
The translator is also more specific as regards the receptor end of the communication process. As far as the ‘grans fais d’armes, prinses et assaulx de villes et de
22
Besamusca 1991, 48. Besamusca’s study focuses on the Middle Dutch translation that is incorporated in the famous ‘Lancelot-compilation’ (The Hague, Royal Library, 129A10) ca. 1320-1325.
23 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 103;
chasteaulx, batailles adreciees et durs rencontres’ are concerned, Froissart promises his audience ‘vous en trouverez grant foison’.24 Gerard Potter translates :
van vele groter zaken ende feyten van wapenen so in strijden, in stormen, an lude, steden ende sloten ende van menich scarp gemoeten ende recontre gheschiet te wesen so suldy dier gelijken noch hier na bij groten hopen horen ende vernemen geschiet te wesen.
(of many great things and feats of arms as well as in battle, attacks, of people, of cities and castles and of many brutal clashes and encounters that happened, but in the following you will hear and be informed of similar feats that have happened in large numbers.)
(H21, fol. 2 r.)
The ‘batailles adreciees’ have been moved forward, thus changing the word order of the French text, a process frequently employed by the Dutch translator. The bipartite enumeration ‘villes et chasteaulx’ has been expanded to include attacks on people, thus providing a more complete summary of the chronicle’s subject matter. Additionally, the image of the reader actively engaged in exploring the text, finding or encountering information, is replaced by a more topic representation of reception: the audience will ‘hear and be informed’ of these acts of war.25
A final example of this category shows how the doublet can further specify the meaning of a general expression. When the envoys sent to Lisbon to convince the Portuguese of the rightful claims of the king of Castile to the Portuguese throne, realise that their mission has failed, they take leave ‘ainsi comme il appertenoit’. The Dutch translation copies the general expression by the adverb ‘bequamelijken’ but adds to it ‘ende zedichlijken’, meaning ‘civilised, decent’.26
Tautologies and doublets can also reflect two or more of the different meanings of words that are polysemous in the original language. When one word suffices for Froissart to describe the men fighting in the kingdoms of Castile, Portugal and other remote regions: ‘vaillans’ (deserving, courageous), Gerard Potter translates both meanings: ‘edele’ (in the sense of ‘meritorious’) and ‘vrome’ (in the sense of ‘brave’).27 Froissart also uses ‘vaillans’ to describe ‘maître Denis’, the illegitimate son of Peter I of Portugal
24 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 105.
25 The reference to ‘hearing’ by no means indicates an aural mode of reception. See: e.g. Pleij 1990, 101-137, especially 114.
26
Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 115; H21, fol. 4 v. 27 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 105;
and later crowned as John I of Portugal. Again, the Dutch translator needs more than one word to capture the meaning of ‘vaillans’. In Dutch, ‘meyster Denijs’ is a ‘vromen, wijsen man’.28 In his translation, Potter expresses the characteristics a (future) king should have: courage and wisdom. Similarly, the expression ‘nobles hommes’ may have presented Potter with a problem, since ‘noble’ may refer to social rank as well as a set of personal characteristics. In the Dutch translation ‘hoge ende edele mannen’, the noblemen’s high social standing is reflected by the qualifier ‘hoge’, whereas their moral excellence is expressed by the (still ambiguous) adjective ‘edele’.29 These examples show the translator’s preoccupation with a correct or complete rendering of the meanings that are conveyed by his French example. The ambiguity is not resolved by a clear choice for a particular option but tackled by the rendition of a variety of possible meanings. This manner of translation may be interpreted as an attempt to exclude ‘faulty’ translation and is probably aimed at preventing an incorrect understanding of the French text. Indeed, translation errors would demean the value and validity of Gerard Potter’s work.30
Admittedly, it is not always clear whether these polysemous doublets have been inspired by Gerard Potter’s linguistic knowledge or his own expectations regarding the situation described in the Chroniques. When Gaston Fébus discovers that his son Gaston
(unknowingly) came very close to poisoning him, he is ‘courrouciez’, the primary meaning of which is ‘furious’. Potter’s translation presents us with a more human reaction: Fébus is ‘ontstelt ende verthoornt’ (confused and outraged).31 ‘Courroucer’ may have the connotation of ‘troubled’, which more or less captures the meaning of the Dutch ‘ontstelt’. In turn, ‘ontstelt’ sometimes refers to strong feelings associated with anger, which might explain Potter’s choice of words.32 The fact that he declares that the king of Castile is ‘gestuert ende verthoornt’ (confused and outraged) at the election of John I of Portugal, may indicate that the translator automatically connected the French ‘courrouciez’ with this connotation of ‘confusion, chaos’.33
Apart from specifying and explicitating the ambiguities of expressions in the original language, tautologies can also be used in a more poetic manner: they can intensify
28 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 111;
H21, fol. 3 v. 29
H21, fol. 1 v. 30
Boone 2009 refers to an arrest of the Parlement at Paris which discusses the risks of incorrect translations in the ducal Council at Ghent ‘which have rendered its judgment void’.
31 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 198;
H21, fol. 33 v.
32 This kind of tautology does not always refer to human characteristics or emotion. Compare
H21, fol. 3 v.
‘rechten ende vrijheden’ as a translation for the French ‘franchises’ (Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 113). ‘Rechten’ may refer to (written) law and ‘vrijheden’ to certain privileges.
33
the meaning of the original expression. In Froissart’s account of the tragic death of Gaston of Foix, one of the characteristics attributed to Charles II of Navarre is ‘malice’ (evil).34 Given that the king of Navarre has (indirectly) caused his nephew’s death and the extinction of the lineage of Gaston Fébus, this is hardly an exaggeration. Gerard Potter’s translation reads ‘scalkhede ende argelistichede’ (maliciousness and deceit). Although both words share the connotation of ‘evil’, the second word may refer to the malevolent scheme set up by the king of Navarre intended to eliminate the count of Foix, his brother- in-law.35
Another category of tautologies combines a French loanword with an indigenous alternative.36 In the prologue, Froissart recounts the cordial welcome he enjoyed at the court of Foix and in particular the praise of Gaston Fébus. The latter has told him that his ‘istoire (…) seroit ou temps a avenir plus recommandee que nulle autre’. In Potter’s translation Froissart’s narrative will be ‘vermairt ende gerecommandeert’ (renowned and recommended).37 The second qualification as regards Froissart’s chronicle has clearly been inspired by the French original. This is by no means remarkable: it is very common for a translation to display the influence of the original text. The phenomenon has been described in the second of G. Toury’s laws of translation: the law of interference, stating that ‘common ST [source-text] lexical and syntactic patterns tend to be copied, creating unusual patterns in the TT [target-text]’. Another example has been presented above. When Froissart reveals to his readership what is to come, Gerard Potter translates ‘dur rencontres’ by a doublet: ‘scarpe gemoeten ende rencontre’. It is clear that in these cases (a) Toury’s law of interference is at work and (b) the indigenous part of the doublet serves as an explanation of the French loan. The fact that the translator added the Dutch alternative may indicate that he questioned the audience’s ability to interpret the French loan word.38 Nevertheless, the fact that he intentionally also used the French hybrid,
34 Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 194.
35 For a summary of the story see Chapter Three (3.4.3), the discussion of the frontispiece of B88. 36
Potter’s use of French loans is partially the reason for J.W. Muller’s negative appreciation of the translation (Muller 1888, 272-274). Muller did not limit his criticism of the translator’s vocabulary and style to the cited article. In a survey of French loans, Muller branded Potter as one of the worst Gallicists known to Middle Dutch literature (Muller 1920, 11 n. 1).
37
Ainsworth and Croenen 2007, 105; H21, fol. 1v. 38
As such, the French loans may have a ‘foreignising’ effect on the audience by giving it a glimpse at the source language culture. Other interventions (such as the substitution of names, expressions) have the opposite effect of ‘domesticating’ the text, rendering it more familiar to a new audience, e.g. the example in § 4.3.2. in which Potter renders the common French names ‘Gautier’ and ‘Guillaume’ by a name which probably was very common in Dutch at the time, ‘Pieter’. The terms ‘foreignisation’ and ‘domestication’ were first coined by L. Venuti (cf. Snell-Hornby 2006, 145). I have the distinct impression that Gerard
suggests that Gerard Potter accepted it as relevant to his audience. In this respect, I agree with F. van Oostrom when he states:
These neologisms should not be blamed on Gerard’s lack of translation experience, nor should it be thought that he used frenchified terms simply because he could not think of the Dutch equivalent – there are too many passages in which he uses French-sounding words quite unlike those found in the original version (…). The explanation must be something other than incompetence, namely that French was once again bon ton at The Hague.
(Van Oostrom 1992, 298)39
Nevertheless, I am not entirely convinced by Van Oostrom’s assertion that the language of the original has not influenced the French-sounding words that differ from those in Froissart’s French text. To the contrary, it is plausible that during the translation process the translator grew accustomed to the French of the original text, which inspired him to use French-sounding alternatives, even when there was no direct relation with the word in the text.40 In any event, it seems reasonable to assume that, in the instances when a French loan is not accompanied by its Dutch alternative, Gerard Potter expected his audience to know and understand this lexical item. Sometimes, this comes as quite a surprise. Indeed, some of these French loans seemingly appear for the first time in the translation of the
Chroniques. In her Chronologisch woordenboek (chronological dictionary of Dutch) N.
van der Sijs suggests that the first use of ‘recommanderen’ should be dated to the period
Potter’s adaptations have been frequently based on his own experiences at the court of Holland (see e.g. § 4.3.). In this respect, his translation could be characterised as domesticating with some foreignising features. 39 I agree with Van Oostrom’s observation that the presence of French hybrids tells us something about the literary or rather cultural tastes of Gerard Potter’s intended audience. To my mind, however, no evidence exists to situate the translation during the last years of the reign of John the Pitiless as suggested by Van Oostrom 1992, 297: ‘This new French influence is reflected in the only literary work apparently produced in the very last years of Bavarian rule at The Hague’ and ‘That Froissart’s work should have been chosen for translation is no less significant: it is a monument to chivalry erected (…) for distant relatives of John of Bavaria’. Van Oostrom’s argument is confusing as a few pages later he states: ‘The language difference between Potter van der Loo Senior and Junior, indeed, symbolizes the difference between Bavarian and Burgundian court culture in Holland’. For reasons which will be explained in Chapter Five, I am rather inclined to share the view of Kukenheim and Roussel who use Potter’s translation as an example of the fact that ‘après l’abdication de Jacqueline de Bavière (1430), les Pays-Bas tendent à se détacher du Saint-Empire pour être intégrés au domaine bourguignon, leur vie culturelle devient de plus en plus un prolongement de celle de France’ (Kukenheim and Roussel 1957, 175). J. Van Herwaarden concludes: ‘this context [the first years of Burgundian rule] helps us to understand that Gerrit Potter’s Dutch was influenced by the French exemplar’ (Van Herwaarden 1990, 2-3).
1467-1490.41 As the terminus ante quem for Gerard Potter’s Middle Dutch translation of
the Chroniques is 14 November 1454 (Potter’s death), his use of this term obviously
predates the occurrence listed by the Chronologisch woordenboek. Although this may be
an indication that Van der Sijs’ dating is not always completely accurate, it seems that (a) Gerard Potter’s language is very modern and (b) that he expected his Dutch-speaking audience to understand the fashionable French-sounding words that had just been incorporated in their native language. Some other examples have been listed in the table below.42
- table 4.1. : French-sounding neologisms in the translation -
The examples listed above clearly show that Gerard Potter’s use of neologisms often predates the dating of the chronological dictionary. Additionally, the relatively late dating of the majority of the French loans that appear in the translation, may also suggest a
41
Van der Sijs 2001, 644. It is not my intention to be critical of Van der Sijs' highly commendable venture, given that it is impossible to take into account all of the surviving (literary and documentary) sources.
42 Most probably J.W. Muller’s interpretation of the Dutch-French doublets in the Dutch translation of Mandeville does not (fully) apply to the doublets in Potter’s translation. According to Muller, the audience of the Middle Dutch Mandeville knew the French loans as well as (or even beter as) their ‘Dutch purist alternatives’. The poet’s primary objective was to ‘flaunt someone else’s feathers’ (Muller 1931, 222).
First attested in Lexical item fol. in H21
1433 affectie 104 r., 145 r. (ende goede gunste), 153 r. (ende begeerten)
1436 kust 23 v., 24 v., 25 v., 80 v., 82 r., 141 v., 144 v., 148v., 156 r., 159 v., 160 r.
1436 spijt 52 v., 54 v., 81 r. (ende verdroit), 106 r.
1437 traktaat 24 r. (ende overdrachten), 24 v. (of compacten), 67 v. (middelen ende), 91 v. , 94 r. (ende dadinge) , 127 r., 127 v., 136 v.
1442 concipiëren (Lat.) 118 r. (ende begreep)
1445 correctie 74 v.
1451 authentiek (Lat.) 166 r., 376 r. 1451-1500 neutraal 103 r. (ende stille)
1451-1500 informatie 14 r., 53 r., 96 r., 226 r. (ende onderzoecke)
1452-1494 accepteren 26 r. (ende annemen), 102 r. (noch anvairden), 127 v. (ende namt an)
1467-1490 recommanderen 1 v. (vermairt ende) 1501-1550 personage 96 v.
slightly later dating for Gerard Potter’s text, rather than an early one as suggested by Muller and Van Oostrom (ca. 1430). In any event, the presence of these French-sounding neologisms shows that Gerard Potter’s audience must have been right at the centre of the linguistic innovations and/or must have had some (basic) knowledge of Latin and French. Since the incorporation of French loan words was probably promoted by the intercultural contacts between Burgundian and indigenous court officials, it seems reasonable that an audience of ‘early adopters’ should be situated at the courts of the Dutch-speaking ‘pays par deça’, which had been recently annexed by the Burgundian personal union. J.W. Muller already connects the Dutch-French doublets with ‘the chancery style of official documents’, the need to be complete and precise (cf. supra, the handling of ambiguities) and the Burgundian government of civil servants. R. Willemyns has suggested that the