During the Late Chalcolithic, ceramic technology across the island advanced. Paste preparation is characterized by increased standardization since the clay is more thoroughly levigated and temper is more uniform in size and density, there are fewer variations in surface colour, fabrics are harder than previously, and a greater variety of shapes is observed. Moreover, a marked increase of scale of production of specific shapes occurs, especially small bowls and platters and a higher degree of standardization of shapes and sizes (Wallace 1995; Bolger 2007, 174). Notably, there is also a shift from calcareous to non-calcareous clays, as well as the use of angular chert as temper and the decrease of organic tempers (Bolger and Webb 2013, 45).
Interestingly, the Red-on-White Ware, which was the predominant ware across the island for over a millennium, is replaced by monochrome pottery traditions, with finer fabrics, thinner walls and new forms of surface treatment (Bolger 2013, 4; Bolger and Webb 2013, 45; Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 188). Besides vessel types that pre-existed in the Middle Chalcolithic, like platters, hemibowls, and flasks with pointed bases, these new monochrome wares were also introduced in new vessel shapes, such as thin-walled bowls with tab handles, jars, and other closed vessels with long narrow spouts for pouring, and one unique face pot (Peltenburg 1985, fig.62.5; Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 188).
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Moreover, the fabrics used are made of non-calcareous clays and new tempering materials, such as serpentine clasts, are used. Furthermore, they are characterized by new decorative techniques, such as relief decoration (primarily knobs and short strokes), deliberate mottling, and burnishing in -sometimes distinct, strokes (Bolger and Webb 2013, 45).
One of these monochrome pottery wares is the Red and Black Stroke Burnished Ware. It is found primarily in the sites of western Cyprus, such as Kissonerga-Mosphilia, Lemba-Lakkous, Makounta-Voules, and Chlorakas-Palloures. It is distinguished by its light red to pink fabric, and its surfaces are red slipped and highly burnished with visible brushing marks (Figure 11). The heavy burnishing often results to surface crazing. As far as forms are concerned, it is attested on hemispherical, ovoid, triangular, conical and deep bowls; hole-mouth, spouted and storage jars; platters; spouted flasks; flasks with a pointed base and spouted bottles (Steele 2004, 113; Bolger and Webb 2013, 42-44).
Figure 11:Red Black Stroke-Burnished vessels from Kissonerga-Mosphilia (Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 189) Overall, this ware is characterised by increased standardization in shape, vessel dimensions and fabric composition (Bolger and Webb 2013, 45). Furthermore, it indicates experimentation of the potters with clays and slips, advances in production skills and maybe even a shift to a more specialised production instead of the household production of the earlier periods (Wallace 1995; Steel 2004, 113).
Although Red and Black Stroke-Burnished Ware is attested only in the western part of the island, excavations at other regions revealed several wares that are very similar to it in terms of shape and surface treatment. These are the Red Lustrous Ware (RL), Black
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Lustrous Ware (BL) and Red and Black Lustrous Ware (RBL), which were identified by Dikaios in his excavations at Philia-Drakos, Kyra-Alonia, Ambelikou-Ayios Georghios and Kalavassos-Pamboules (Dikaios 1962, 111; 143; 154; Bolger 2007, 173). Moreover, sherds with fabrics akin to those have been recovered in massive quantities at the site Politiko- Kokkinorotsos, namely Fabric A and Fabric E (Webb et al. 2009, 203). These variations are black and/or burnished, made with local clays, exhibit signs of intentional reduction, and some bare relief decoration. Hence, although these wares are not identical to the Red and Black Stroke-Burnished Ware, Bolger and Peltenburg argued that they could be included in the Late Chalcolithic monochrome burnished tradition (Bolger 2007, 173; Bolger 2013, 5; Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 188) (Figure 12).
Figure 12:Red and/or black burnished sherds from Ambelikou-Agios Georghios (Photographs taken by Maria Hadjigavriel)
One needs to keep in mind that Chalcolithic pottery exhibits great regional variability, hence the construction of a cross-site typology has been challenging. Several terms have been ascribed to each type by different scholars and in different publications (Table 2). This problem is overly prominent when it comes to Red Monochrome wares, which occur in various wares across the island (Peltenburg 1991b, 11; Bolger and Webb 2013, 46). As mentioned before, a cross-site typology based on fabric composition has been created by Dr. Charalambos Paraskeva and is under publication (Paraskeva 2015).
Furthermore, the presence of red and/or black burnished monochrome traditions of the Late Chalcolithic challenges the degrees of regionalism and interactions between the several communities across the island. Hence, through the research conducted here, I attempt to shed light to social interactions in Cyprus at the time by examining systematically technological similarities and differences between these wares and trying to define whether they belong to the same pottery tradition. Different aspects of pottery production and consumption can reveal different degrees and ways of interaction between potters and hence the communities in which they belong. Details on this
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approach and the methodology developed and applied in this thesis follow in the next chapter.
3.3. Late Chalcolithic Monochrome Pottery and Philia Pottery: Replacement or Co-
Existence?
As it has been mentioned in the previous chapter, the beginning of the Early Bronze Age on the island has been a topic of debate among scholars, especially concerning the nature of the Philia culture and the presumably migratory populations from Anatolia. Pottery has been a significant indicator of the Philia culture and prominent in the discussion (Peltenburg 1991b, 9). To begin with, the Philia Red Polished Ware is found almost exclusively in sites at the northern part of the island. It occurs in yellowish-brown medium hard fabrics with a thick grey core, and its surface is evenly polished, and red slipped. There are several variations which include incised lime-filled decoration, black interior or/and exterior and irregular or band burnishing (Bolger and Webb 2013, 50) (Figure 13).
Recent research has indicated that this pottery tradition was produced in one region and then distributed to other sites, probably as a means of reciprocal exchange with copper-rich areas. "Evidence suggests a cohesive community network that was gradually to be replaced by more regional forms of social interaction and commodity exchange and a technological profile of a ceramic tradition that was rooted either in the Ovgos Valley or in Lapithos, and continued to evolve technologically in the centuries to follow” (Dikomitou-Eliadou and Zomeni 2017, 101). It appears in new morphological shapes, like small bowls and jugs, juglets with flat bases, cut-away spouts and ‘plugged’ handles (Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 189-190). The most distinctive shapes, such as the close vessels, have been interpreted as used only for social purposes like drinking customs, similarly to the Red and Black Stroke-Burnished thin bowls from Kissonerga- Figure 13:Philia Red Polished vessel (www.gettyimages.nl)
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Mosphilia and Lemba-Lakkous (Manning 1993; Webb and Frankel 2013; Bolger and Peltenburg 2014).
Initially, Dikaios emphasised on the novelties of the Philia Red Polished to argue that the native Cypriot population was weakened when "the Khirbet Kerak movement invades Cyprus" and that "little of the traditional culture survived" (Dikaios 1962, 202). On the other hand, Hennessy argued in favour of Chalcolithic elements developing and being identified in the Philia pottery, such as monochrome finishes (Hennessy 1973, 3-4). Nowadays, most researchers believe that the two pottery traditions overlapped (e.g., Stanley-Price 1979, 21-22; Karageorghis 1982, 41; Knapp 1990, 16; Bolger and Peltenburg 2014, 187).
As Bolger and Peltenburg (2014, 187) noted, the two traditions, Red and Black Stroke-Burnished and Philia Red Polished, have some traits in common: both have black and red finishes determined by firing techniques, such as reduction. In both cases, this bichrome effect was mainly produced in bowls and jars.