DE LA GESTIÓN INTEGRAL DE LOS DESECHOS SANITARIOS PELIGROSOS

Most research in the context of TNE has been conducted by researchers in Australia. This is not surprising as Australia is one of the top exporters of TNE services and also the leading destination for international students (Tsiligiris, 2014). Across the literature, the prominent theme observed was the specific development needs of staff in the unique TNE environment. Researchers have highlighted that the employment of quality staff, who are willing to deliver and administer the programme, is an important factor in assuring the success of an offshore programme (Dobos, 2011).

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Content delivery is an important factor in ensuring that TNE delivery is on par with its domestic equivalent. Therefore, universities need to develop strategies to build and maintain similar standards between the host and home institutions. In addition, the ability to attract, retain, and develop highly-qualified staff is of pivotal importance. Proper induction of academic staff involved in TNE programmes is essential to both the quality and equivalence of teaching and learning (Gribble and Ziguras, 2003, MacDonald, 2006). Gribble and Ziguras (2003) also highlighted the need of international academics to be adequately prepared for distinct academic and cultural encounters in the unique transnational learning environment.

However, Dunn and Wallace (2006) found that many universities in Australia may not have kept up with the development. Academics involved in TNE teaching reported that their universities did not have specific induction programmes to orientate them with the countries in which they were required to teach. Academics also pointed out that teaching international students abroad was qualitatively different from teaching international students in an Australian campus. Although it was a relatively small study, respondents were experienced academics in transnational teaching yet even they admitted the need to be better prepared for teaching in other countries. Also, clearer guidelines should be provided from the institutions. In line with this observation, Dobos (2011) found that academic staff indicated a lack of equality at offshore campuses of Australian universities. Staff involved in transnational teaching identified that communication was often one-way with directives given from the Australian university about assessment and grades, with no opportunity for debate or discussion. There existed a general sense that staff were not treated professionally regardless of whether they were Australian or local staff. However, one staff member did indicate that a positive relationship existed with staff in the home campus when communication was adequate.

Smith (2009) expanded on the importance of recognising staff professionalism and communication between partners. She demonstrated how an initially poor relationship between a home and offshore campus gradually evolved into a more positive one. The relationship improved through the establishment of better and stronger communication between both institutions. Face-to-face contact was also found to have high value in maintaining a positive relationship and enhancing the collaboration. The study further

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emphasised the importance of a proper induction process for academics working in the TNE context, not only for those deployed overseas but also those permanently employed at the offshore campus.

In terms of academic professional development, Leask and Hicks (2005) recognised the specific knowledge and skills required for offshore teachers which included; be an expert in their field, able to handle operational issues involved in transnational teaching, be an efficient intercultural learner, and able to demonstrate particular personal attitudes and attributes such as being approachable, patient, encouraging, and passionate about their teachings. More specifically, Debowski (2003) identified the need for professional development in areas such as flexible delivery, e-learning, cross-cultural communication, large group instructional techniques, moderation and curriculum design. Ultimately, intercultural competence has been recognised as an important competency for academics involved in TNE teaching (Greenholtz, 2000, Leask, 2004, Dunn and Wallace, 2006, Dobos, 2011).

TNE arrangements involve cross-cultural teaching and learning when staff and students go overseas. Knight (2004) described intercultural1 as relating to the diversity of cultures that exists within countries, communities, and institutions. Bhawuk and Brislin (1992, p.416) suggested that, in order to be effective in another culture, one must be interested in other cultures, sensitive enough to notice intercultural differences and willing to modify behaviours to show respect towards the people of other cultures. Leask (2006) advocates a greater role of academics from home institutions as learners, as well as teachers or role models (Debowski, 2003), with a responsibility to broaden and deepen their understanding of other cultures and to integrate these learnings into their teaching at the home campus. In this context, Dunn (2006) demonstrated that transnational teaching did provide enrichment through added examples and case studies from other countries. Furthermore, Greenholtz (2000) introduced an inventory to objectively measure the intercultural sensitivity of TNE academics in an attempt to assess their training needs. While the inventory was mostly used to assess student’s readiness for intercultural learning, no empirical study supports its use in TNE academics. The closest example to this comes from a recent study assessing the cultural competency of

1 _{This thesis uses inter and cross cultural synonymously throughout although there is some debate about}

distinctions between the two Gudykunst, W. B. 2003. Cross-cultural and intercultural communication, Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE Publications..

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students, faculty, and staff from a college with an ultimate goal of producing a more culturally competent nursing workforce to serve the greater community (Kruse et al., 2014).

In summary, although a growing body of research exists in the transnational context, the main focus of the literature is on Western-based academics working offshore for limited periods of time. To date, little consideration has been given to permanent academics working in an offshore campus. In addition, the review of the literature also highlights the need for more studies beyond the predominantly Australian context and for studies that focus on a greater number of individuals with different experiences.