The Roman occupation of Dacia first aimed at reducing the inevitable resistance through a program that called for the garrisoning of troops throughout the province and
the use of the LIMES, the defensive system proven in other
regions. Rome moved quickly to make its occupation per- manent. In 118–119, Hadrian divided Dacia into Superior and Inferior and divided the Superior region again in 124
C.E., forming a Dacia Porolissensis. Three provinces thus
prevented a national uprising, and the presence of one governor to watch over all three kept intelligence well in hand.
The major source of imperial influence, however, came not from the legions or legates but from simple colonists and merchants. From all over the empire, espe- cially from the Danubian provinces, farmers and founders
of coloniae arrived to receive tracts of land and to take up residence in Dacian territories. Sarmizegethusa was declared a colonia to exemplify its status as a provincial capital.
Colonial communities made cultural life in Dacia a very mixed and decidedly cosmopolitan affair. The Dacians retained their names and their own ways in the midst of the newcomers, and the region continued to exhibit Dacian characteristics. Outside the province, however, those Dacians who had fled their homeland bided their time, watching the Romans drain their native territory of gold while rebuilding and improving their cities. Workers labored in the mines of Dacia to bring out the gold, silver, and other metals desired by the emperors. The Dalmatians were noted for their mining skills, and Trajan erected many buildings in Rome with resources stripped from Dacia. Cities in the Dacian provinces did gain as a result of Roman interest. The greatest of these, aside from Sarmizegethusa, was Apulum. The one-time camp of the legions grew in size until it achieved both municipal and colonial rank. When Dacia was separated into several provinces, Apulum served first as the chief community of Dacia Superior. Later the governor of the entire region resided there.
From the start the Roman Empire faced problems with Dacia. Strategically the stable line of defense had always rested upon the Danube, and the Dacian kingdom extended well north of the Danubian provinces. Its bor- ders fronted such troublesome groups as the Roxolani, the Sarmatians, and worst of all, from a Roman perspec- tive, the Goths. Maintaining the frontier proved increas- ingly difficult as the Carpi and the Goths pushed into Transylvania. Their organization and strength increased at the same time that Rome was beset by the crisis of the
mid-third century C.E. AURELIAN, who headed the rela-
tively successful military recovery, nevertheless decided that the Dacian holdings were far too exposed. He made the decision to evacuate all of Dacia. Parts of Moesia were seized in order to form yet another province for the evac- uees, but the prize of Dacia was surrendered to its native peoples forever.
Dalmatia See ILLYRICUM.
Dalmatius, Flavius (d. c. 337 C.E.) Half-brother of
Constantine the Great, by Constantius I Chlorus and Theodora
As a relative of the emperor, Dalmatius had various posi- tions of authority, including a censorship and consulship in 333. From 334 to 335, he held a command in the East- ern Empire, where he put down a revolt of Calocaerus,
whom he put to death in Tarsus. In 335, he saved ATHANA-
SIUS from persecution at the Council of Tyre but died,
probably in 337, as part of the terrible massacre instigated
by the heirs of CONSTANTINE, following that ruler’s death.
Dalmatius, Flavius Julius (d. 337 C.E.) Son of Flavius
Dalmatius and nephew of Constantine the Great
Reportedly a favorite of his uncle, Dalmatius received an education at Toulouse. On September 18, 335, he was granted the title of Caesar and was no doubt included in
the intended division of the empire at CONSTANTINE’s
death. His territories, according to the will, were to
include Thrace, Macedonia, and Achaea. CONSTANTIUS II
was apparently jealous of him, and in 337, after the death of Constantine, a massacre took place within the family and palace. Dalmatius was put to death along with his father and many other relatives.
Damascus Large, ancient city in southern Syria on the banks of the Chrysorrhoas River, east of Phoenicia. Dam- ascus has stood for millennia as one of the great centers in Syria and dates to the era of Abraham. It was, however,
overshadowed in Roman times by ANTIOCH, the capital of
the imperial province, and by PALMYRA. Damascus was
directly on the frontier with the Parthian, and later Per- sian, Empire, and thus was positioned perfectly to receive and distribute the trade coming from the east and from Palmyra. Caravans crossing the arid lands of southern Mesopotamia found the many comforts of the city invit- ing; under the empire, trade was abundant, despite the bitter wars with the Parthians and the Sassanids. During the Late Roman Empire, Damascus served with Antioch and Edessa as an arms factory, acquiring a reputation for manufacturing exquisite blades. Its position was always threatened, as Rome lost control over its frontiers.
Damasus (c. 304–384 C.E.) Bishop of Rome and pope,
from 366 to 384
Of Spanish descent, Damasus entered the service of
LIBERIUS, his predecessor as bishop, and became a deacon
of the Christian Church. Most of the clergy and the laity supported Damasus, but a small and powerful minority chose Ursicinus as a candidate for the bishopric. Both men were elected in rival churches, and fighting erupted in the streets, causing the death of some 137 people. Hav- ing worked for Liberius, Damasus had made many friends in the government, and Emperor Valentinian I stepped into the dispute. The emperor exiled Ursicinus and declared Damasus to be pope. The archives of his predecessor were carefully maintained, several new churches were built and steps were taken to honor the martyrs. The tombs of the martyrs were elaborately deco- rated with poems written by Damasus and carved by the famous Filocalus. Damasus also worked against the ram- pant heresies of the time, corresponding with Basil of
Caesarea, with an eye toward eliminating ARIANISM. He
was reportedly fond of stylish attire.
damnatio memoriae A severe element in the penalty
for MAIESTAS(treason). According to its terms, the name
(praenomen) of the charged was to be expunged, thus ensuring that the name would not be passed on to a next generation. Additionally, the name was scratched off all inscriptions, and any statues or images of the con- demned were destroyed. Several emperors were subject to the damnatio memoriae, such as Nero and Didius Julianus.
Danube One of the great rivers of the Roman Empire, serving for centuries as the northern frontier of imperial territory. The river bore two names: The Upper Danube, from its source in Germania to the city of Vienna, was called Danubius, and the Lower Danube, from Vienna to the Black Sea, was known as the Ister. Virtually every province from the Alps to Asia bordered the river, includ- ing RAETIA, NORICUM,PANNONIA, ILLYRICUM, MOESIA, and
THRACE. Emperor Augustus (ruled 27 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
determined that the Danube would be a natural border between the provinces and the barbarians of the north. As he plotted the means by which he could unite the regions of Greece and Macedonia with Italy and Gaul, he launched several punitive expeditions over the Danube
into DACIA, to reduce the pressures from the tribes there.
Thus Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus attacked from 7 to 2
B.C.E., as possibly did M. Vinicius. In 6 C.E., a more con-
certed effort was headed by TIBERIUS, whose operations
were cut short by a massive revolt in Illyricum and Pan- nonia.
The uprising pointed to a perennial weakness in the entire frontier. Tribes on both sides of the Danube were unstable and unreliable; Rome stationed anywhere from seven to 12 legions on the Danube at any given time. Auxiliary troops probably were first used in support of these legions. A fleet sailed the river well into the fifth century, when the Praetorian prefect of Constantinople,
ANTHEMIUS, reorganized the ships and boats and made
them far more effective. Strategically essential to Roman supremacy, the Danube inevitably became a battleground between the empire and the ever-changing peoples of
Dacia and beyond. TRAJAN, from around 100 to 106 C.E.,
waged a large war against DECEBALUS of Dacia, based on
the Danube. He subsequently made Dacia a province and eased the burden on the Danubian line. Trajan’s dream
would not last beyond the third century C.E., for the
sheer length of the frontier made defense difficult in the face of an organized or massive foe.
After the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180, and in the face of the reluctance of his heir, Commodus, to carry on conquests, instability was inevitable. Throughout the century the Goths threatened the
province, and in 249, KNIVA, the king of the Goths,
caused havoc. In 251, Emperor Trajanus Decius fell in battle near the Danube, and from 254 to 261 the once secure border to the north was overrun. Although Con- stantine would campaign effectively, the problems inher-
ent with the river were a contributing factor in the deci- sion to create a new Roman capital, closer to this chronic theater of operations. But even Constantinople could not halt the march of the Goths, and in 378, pushed by migratory peoples farther to the east, these hard-fighting barbarians settled across the Danube. That same year
they crushed Emperor Valens at ADRIANOPLE, ending for-
ever imperial hopes of ruling the region. The Danube was worshiped by the local tribes, such as the Getae, Thra- cians, Marcomanni, and Dacians, as a living god of nature.
Daphne A Greek deity worshiped by the Greeks and Romans. It was said that Apollo saw Daphne and fell madly in love and eagerly pursued her. But she refused his advances, and when he did not stop his attentions, she called out to her divine mother, Gaia, Mother Earth, for aid. She transformed her into a laurel tree. To the Romans Daphne epitomized the virtue of virginity. Her symbol was the laurel wreath, as Apollo honored her by wearing one himself. In Antioch there was a grove named Daphne, where stood a temple of Apollo.
See alsoGODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
Datianus (d. after 365 C.E.) Consul, senator, and comes
under Constantine the Great and Constantius II
Datianus had considerable influence in the imperial court at Constantinople. He was the son of a bath attendant who made the most of his opportunities. He learned to read and write, mastered the shorthand of the period and
became one of the NOTARII. In 337, Constantius became
emperor, and Datianus served as one of his closest advis- ers. Over the next years his offices and power increased.
He became a senator of Constantinople, a COMES circa
345, consul in 358 and a patrician sometime before 360. He was the one who wrote to Athanasius, bestowing upon him the right to return to Alexandria, and his status in the court clearly did not die with Constantius in 361. Datianus was a member of the confidential circle of Emperor Jovian, and when Jovian died in 364, he wrote to the imperial ministers at Nicaea, trying to find a new ruler and heartily recommending Valentinian.
Dea Dia Ancient Roman goddess whose special area of divine concern was the fertility of the annual crops. Her sacred residence was a grove, and her ministers, the
ARVAL BRETHREN. The Arval Brethren performed the wor- ship rituals of Dea Dia in May, as part of their regular priesthood duties. The festival took place over a four-day period (actually three days, with one day separating the ceremonies of the first and second days). Opening rites included prayers at the home of the head of the brethren, the magister. The second ritual was held at the grove. At dawn the prayers of honor and adoration were sung. Later, bedecked in wreaths of corn ears, the actual sacri-
Decebalus 169
fices, the agna opima were made. Feasts concluded the proceedings, as Rome celebrated the abundance of Dea Dia’s gifts.
See alsoGODS AND GODDESSES OF ROME.
death Considered a source of incredible bad luck (to the living) by the Romans, who were great students of fortune and ill. Death was a temporary curse, a funestum that could be overcome with certain traditions and ritu- als, and the passing of a family member was a solemn occasion. Immediately after the death, the survivors per- formed the conclamatio, or wailing and crying, accompa- nied by the blowing of horns, which announced the parting of a loved one. Each family member then gave his or her final farewells, the extremum vale. The corpse was washed and anointed, dressed in suitably splendid rai- ment, according to the person’s station in life, and placed upon a bier. Until the period of mourning was ended, no priestly official of Jupiter could approach the house of the deceased or touch the body. A cypress was placed in front
of the residence to warn clergy, especially the PONTIFEX
MAXIMUS, to stay away.
On the day of the funeral, the body was carried to the final resting place, a location of some importance. The procession included many torchbearers, although cremation was not always the final means of disposal. Cremation was the most common means, however, and bits of bone were retained after the ritual burning. Such remnants were buried, for it was considered essential that the earth cover some part of the body. After the rituals, several days, usually nine, or even weeks passed before the priests declared the burial complete. The ceremonies accompanying the funerals, burials, and cremations of the Romans were equally crucial. A pig was sacrificed on occasion, and the purifying prayers were recited for the
house. Further sacrifices were also offered to the LARES.
Nine days later, eight after the funeral, offerings were made on the novendiale sacrificium or the final day. Wax masks were hung on the walls, depicting the faces of those who had died. These could be used in the funeral processions as well, worn by actors who played the parts of ancestors who walked with the dead and ushered them into the next world. These rites of parting were called the
iusta facere. They had to be performed correctly or the
consequences for the departed and the living would be spiritually grievous. If left without burial, or if buried improperly, the spirit of the deceased would walk the earth in an evil mood and might even return to its former abode. Precautions were taken to avoid that possibility, but when necessary, other steps could be taken to keep the dead from causing trouble. Purifications of the house helped, as did the practice of taking the deceased out of his residence feet first.
More extreme forms of exorcism took place at the somber festival of the dead, the Lemuria, held every May. A ghost could be repulsed by spitting out black beans,
and by uttering: “With these you and I are redeemed.” Ovid described the Lemuria as a terrible event of three
days, filled with the LEMURES and demons roaming the
city. The Lemuria was certainly reflective of an ancient view of death, and it was opposed by the newer, more pleasant philosophy behind the Parentalia or Feast of Souls, held from the 13th to the 21st of each February. The Parentalia was a beautiful ceremony, designed to help recall the deceased, be they mother, father, daughter, or son. These deceased came not as terrible spirits but as loved ones not to be feared. As such they were honored relatives.
The state used this day to commemorate all dead ancestors, the founders and builders of the greatness that was Rome. There was none of the dread so infused into Ovid’s description of the Lemuria. Instead, the Romans faced the prospect of death with an optimism that rea- soned that the deceased had been successful in reaching their final goal. A soul or spirit journeyed into the Under- world, and, if all went according to practiced traditions, it would enter there and live with the other transformed
spiritual entities, the MANES. The exact structure or land-
scape of the region remained suitably vague. Christianity, of course, changed Roman concepts about death and the afterlife. Like the pagan gods, the lemures and the manes and their eternal abodes faded or were absorbed into the new religious tenets.
Decangi A tribe in Britain that probably resided in the area of modern Cheshire. The Decangi (or Deceangi) were victims of the campaign of Ostorius Scapula in 50
C.E. Their lands were ruined and most of their wealth
seized outright, a prize of some value considering the
lead mines nearby. The newly created province of BRITAN-
NIAwould eventually include the Decangi.
Decebalus (d. 106 C.E.) King of the Dacians; ruled in
Dacia from sometime before 85 C.E. until his death
Decebalus proved an excellent king and a brilliant gen- eral, avoiding personal defeat at Roman hands until the
reign of TRAJAN. After the fall of Nero in 69 C.E. and sev-
eral Dacian incursions into the Danubian provinces, the
often strife-torn domain of DACIA witnessed the emer-
gence of the warrior Decebalus. He seized the throne and laid claim to the entire country. Under his guidance the once great army was restored to its level in the era of
BUREBISTAS, who had ruled from circa 60 to 44 B.C.E. As a
result, the unity of Dacia was unquestioned.
In 85 C.E., Decebalus resolved to defeat his great
enemy, Rome. He launched a campaign into Moesia, where he crushed and killed its governor, Oppius Sabinus. Emperor Domitian marched to the province and, after bit- ter fighting, drove the Dacians back across the Danube. In 86, the Praetorian Prefect Cornelius Fuscus invaded Dacia, only to be annihilated. The Romans returned with reinforcements, driving far into the region and winning a
victory at Tapae, near the mountain pass called the Iron Gate, in 88, under the command of Tettius Julianus. Domitian himself returned to take part in the final surren- der. Decebalus sued then for peace and in time a treaty was enjoined between Rome and Dacia. Domitian was caught by an uprising in Germania and had to accept terms for a general peace in the area. He recognized Dece- balus as a client in return for a promise not to engage in anti-imperial activities. Reasonably satisfied by this arrangement, Rome and Dacia agreed to the pact in 89.
However, the agreement was broken and war broke out in 101. Trajan intended to reduce the pressure along the Danube and Dacia. With hopes of luring the Romans to their destruction, as he had done to Cornelius Fuscus, Decebalus permitted an uncontested advance and then attacked at Tapae—a stalemate. Decebalus used the win-