El Golpe de Ariete o Pulso de Zhukowski

§ 1.3.1

Aim

Previous research on the interface of BIM and SC thinking has focused on assessing the inter-organisational implications of the use of ICT in construction projects (Adriaanse, 2007). This thesis focuses on solely the use of BIM technology as a construction IT and aims to discuss the transformations of the AEC SC partnerships through BIM and vice versa: change the BIM collaboration process by applying SCM thinking. Thus, it does not only hold an inter-organisational view but also hold a long-term perspective, which is envisaged from SC partnering. The research focuses on an inter-organisational level across firms from multiple construction tiers, by considering the organisation – also referred to as ‘actor’ – as a Unit of Analysis (UoA). An organisation is considered a “purposeful system“ that contains at least two purposeful individuals who have a common purpose (Ackoff, 1971), and behaves like a rational agent (Giddens, 1984) with a consistent role. Therefore, the ‘system’ in this thesis stands for the SC (partnership) and the ‘actor’ stands for the various multi-disciplinary AEC firms.

Accordingly, various construction firms might participate in these SC partnerships, e.g. architects (traditionally considered as the clients’ personal problem-solvers), engineers (essentially the designers of the structures and building services), contractors (the key actor for construction coordination), and suppliers (Winch, 2002). To increase the pragmatic relevance of the study, the intra-organisational levels of top firm management, project managers, and BIM employees (draughtsmen, engineers or coordinators) were also analysed, referred to and as ‘functions’ (Ackoff, 1971). Therefore, the inter-organisational collaboration in BIM-enabled SC partnerships is analysed as to the collaboration processes, tools, and the explicit and implicit functions and roles within the involved firms and individuals.

Improved collaboration among the design team, the contractors, and the client organisations has been already reported for BIM from various scientific and market reports (Azhar, 2011; Bryde, Broquetas, & Volm, 2013; McGraw-Hill, 2014). This research also investigates their motives, willingness, and capacity to establish – or retain – transparent, trusting, and reciprocal relations and to engage in long-term collaboration. Subsequently, apart from sharing risks and rewards, they would induce greater market stability from their engagement to using BIM. While larger teams seem to benefit the most from engaging with BIM (McGraw-Hill, 2014), this research intends to promote SCM as a solution for the challenges in BIM processes in multiple types of firms. It is assumed that subsequently all the organisational structures, roles, and processes of AEC will be transformed by the introduction of BIM as an integrated technology for supporting the SC information flows.

BIM as an IT includes a variety of tools, practices, and norms. Although there is currently an abundance of BIM rhetoric, it has not achieved the appropriate socio- technical maturity to become an indisputable standard for the industry. From the flows that have been traditionally considered parts of a Supply Chain – material and information (Christopher, 1992) – this research focuses only on the information flows among the SC actors that define the collaboration, following the managerial standpoint of Winch (2002). After all, the information flows are primarily responsible for distributing the material, and cash flows and the information and the interactions among the project actors are crucial for the remaining flows. The SC information flows are enriched by the computational infrastructures of BIM and the consistency of project building information.

The research aims to clarify and redefine the interfaces between SCM and in particular SC partnership, and BIM. BIM is then suggested as an integrator of the SC information flows. The underlying hypothesis of the thesis was that the coherency of the information flows from BIM applications could increase the transparency and consequently the trust among the SC partnership. BIM-enabled SC partnerships encourage the involved SC actors to share their responsibilities and, therefore, common risks and rewards. This research does not intend to accept BIM uncritically as a

panacea for all the challenges that AEC faces, but to apply SCM concept and practices to BIM adoption. The objective is to get BIM “supply chain-ed” and not the AEC SC partnerships simply “BIM-ed”.

Thus, the main research objective is to describe the repercussions of the intersection between the SCM and BIM concepts not only regarding efficiency and effectiveness – for the products and processes – but also on the structure of the inter-organisational network of the AEC SC partnerships. Subsequently, the study seeks to improve and align SCM with BIM by providing practical solutions. The word ‘repercussions’ was selected to denote the exploration of the combination of BIM and SCM philosophy, given that ‘repercussions’ carries a neutral, indirect, or unforeseen connotation, and implies a reciprocal action from the two constructs in question, i.e. SCM and BIM. The word ‘intersection’ is embedded in the main research objective of the thesis, borrowed by the Set Theory in Mathematics, to explain the relation between the two main constructs, i.e. SCM and BIM. Figure 1 illustrates different operations between two notions, e.g. SCM and BIM. Given that the two main constructs under study are quite incomparable, as SCM pertains to a management philosophy (Vrijhoef, 2011), and BIM to a “set of instrumentalities” (Miettinen & Paavola, 2014) the two are not fully combined in this research. Therefore, only the intersection of the two, i.e. the aspects that apply to both SCM and BIM, is studied in this research (see Figure 1). These aspects are discussed further in the Chapter 2, and would be eventually defined further in Chapter 8.

Union AUB Intersection A B Symmetric difference AΔB

A B A B A B

FIGURE 1 Various types of relations between the constructs of BIM and SCM, and the selected relation (intersection).

§ 1.3.2

Research questions

The main question describes the central research aim in an overarching manner. The main question was further analysed in “what” and “how” -type sub-questions.

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How to align the SCM philosophy with BIM technologies to achieve integration in the construction industry? What aspects contribute to this alignment?

The terms ‘align’ and ‘alignment’ are used in the main Research Question (RQ), following their abundant appearances in SCM literature, such as of Mentzer et al.

(2001), and Lambert et al. (1998), where ‘alignment’ refers to the evaluation of the extent to which various managerial and behavioural components of the firms concur. The dissertation has three main parts: a description part, which contains the background to create the domain knowledge of this research, an analysis part, which contains the main research explorations, and a synthesis part, which combines the related domains into the main research products, theoretical synthesis and model or operational framework. The description part contains the background questions of this research, which in turn are answered through the literature review and field study. The aim of the background questions was to provide a qualitative analysis of the two topics – SCM philosophy and BIM technology – regarding theory (literature review) and practice (field study). The two background questions, which further set the ground for the subsequent key questions, are:

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RQ#1: What design and construction challenges of the AEC industry could the SCM and BIM concepts potentially manage? (Chapter 2)

–

RQ#2: What are the interdependences between BIM technology and SCM practices in real-world settings? (Chapter 3)

The previous questions provided the tools to create a preliminary conceptual synthesis of the two research topics: SCM philosophy and BIM technology (description part). The key questions of the research used the interim conclusions developed during the analysis part of the research. Both “what” and “how” questions were considered. The “how” questions were answered by a quantitative and applied research approach and provided the main research products: (a) the theoretical synthesis and (b) the proposed operational framework. The “what” questions were answered in a mixture of qualitative and quantitative approaches for providing grounded insights into the causalities observed in real-world case studies. The last “how” question (RQ#6) introduces the synthesis part of the thesis. The key research questions are the following:

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RQ#3: How to combine the SCM with BIM concepts to analyse BIM-enabled SC partnerships? (Chapter 4)

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RQ#4: What are the effects of BIM-enabled SC partnering on the formal and informal relations of the Supply Chain? (Chapter 5)

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RQ#5: How does BIM impact the intra- and inter-organisational relations of BIM- enabled SC partnerships? (Chapter 6)

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RQ#6: How could the BIM-enabled SC partnerships be shaped after the alignment of SCM philosophy with BIM technology? (Chapter 7)

§ 1.4

Research methodology

§ 1.4.1

Research design

This research has been conducted at empirical and theoretical levels to address issues of technology implementation, management, integration, and organisational dynamics. Golicic et al. (2005) explained how there is a need for a more balanced approach between “inductive research methods (typically qualitative) in addition to deductive methods (typically quantitative) in Supply Chain Management.” The focus of the research is pragmatic – i.e. theoretical and practical – thus, a mixed method was undertaken. The mixed approach entails both inductive and deductive reasoning as well as both collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data. Dubois and Gadde (2002b, 2014) suggested a method that signifies an evolving intermediate interaction between inductive and deductive thinking, namely “systematic combining” or “abductive reasoning.” The interaction between exploration (Chapters 3, 5, and 6) and theoretical experimentation (Chapter 4) would provide the final research products: a theoretical synthesis and a model to describe BIM-enabled SC partnerships and foster the potential popularisation of BIM and SCM.

The overarching research design was based on a set of four interdependent studies of five case studies. The case study methods were selected for offering rich insights into the emerging phenomenon of BIM-enabled SC partnering. The exploration was facilitated by the observation of real-world phenomena (Chapters 3 and 6), and the theoretical experimentation (Chapters 4 and 5) was facilitated by devising a modelling method for the analysis of the mechanics of the real-life BIM-enabled SC partnerships. Input from theory in the areas of SCM, BIM, Social Networks, and Modelling, were combined with input observed in practice so as to project a potential future state of AEC, where SCM practices and BIM technology could mutually support each other. The theoretical and practical inputs were concurrent, i.e. all research chapters (from 3 to 6) contain both theoretical and empirical insights. Figure 2 illustrates the interaction among various lines of thought undertaken in the study.

_ Update theory _ Create theoretical

framework _ Design ideal model (merge the

above) _ Eastman (BIM) _ Supply chains _ Modeling & Simulation _ Graph Theory _Social Networks _ Use cases (SCM) _ Exploration cases (SCM & BIM) _ Application cases (SCM & BIM) _ Expert group

Alignment

Practice

Theory

deductive inductive abductive*

FIGURE 2 Mixed approach: The interplay between theory and practice. *Adopted from (Dubois and Gadde, 2002).

§ 1.4.2

Research methods

The diverse character of the two main research topics, SCM philosophy, and BIM technology called for diverse research methods for each topic. Various research methods were used to respond to the research questions, which amounted to ‘mixed methods’. The research analysed both qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative part included literature analysis and exploration of the status of BIM adoption within existing real-world SC partnerships, where SCM was applied, i.e. RQ#1 and RQ#2. The quantitative part proposed a modelling analysis tool analysing BIM-enabled SC partnerships (RQ#3) and subsequently applied its underlying modelling principles to two real-world cases for analysis (RQ#4). Additional empirical case analysis also took place (RQ#5). The two parts were concurrent from the third year onwards. The interim results from each part were informing and shaping the other part. Finally, based on the previous research questions and findings, the synthesis of the two topics had a theoretical and prescriptive character (RQ#6). Particular attention was given to the establishment of a balanced research for both BIM and SCM concepts.

First, the research was based on the exploration of the existing literature about SCM in construction and BIM technology. During that period, the initial theory development (deductive decisions) took place (RQ#1). Second, the exploratory case studies were selected for providing a “real-life context” and inductive character to the research (Yin, 1984) (RQ#2). The exploration phase, based on case study research, could have been approached by three different possible scenarios. The explorations would offer the basis for a structured comparison among various projects to reveal the interactions of

BIM-based technologies and SCM practices. The three possible scenarios for selecting the cases were:

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Comparison among BIM-based projects without SCM implementation, with the ultimate goal, to examine the compatibility of SCM philosophy with BIM. This option could be supported by plenty of BIM-based projects worldwide.

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Comparison of integrated SC partnerships without BIM implementation, with the ultimate goal to examine the compatibility of BIM with the SCM philosophy. This option could be catered by plenty of opportunities in the Netherlands, and potentially be explored to other industries.

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Comparison of SCM practices with BIM implementation, with the ultimate goal to investigate, register and consider alternatives for further integration. This scenario entailed a great challenge as to the case recruitment process because the BIM-enabled SC partnerships were quite rare (at the time of the study), and mostly available in the Netherlands (see also sections § 3.3 and § 8.1).

From the three scenarios, the third was followed, although it was the most challenging regarding the availability of case studies. First, the added value of the third scenario was that it combined both research topics (SCM and BIM) and thus, various nuances of the simultaneous real-world use of SCM and BIM could be observed. Second, any potential lessons learned from early and emerging forms of real-world SCM and BIM combination could reflect and provide useful insights into the future state of the AEC industry. A sample of five case studies and around 40 involved and inter- connected firms was finally recruited for the study. Although the sample of cases seems quite small, it is comparable to the amount of cases studied in other construction management-related PhD dissertations in the MBE department, such as of Vrijhoef’s

(2011) and Bektas’ (2013), who followed nine (isolated) and two cases respectively for the exploration of supply chain integration and knowledge management correspondingly.

The case studies played a dual role in this research: exploration and application. On the one hand, the case studies provided an array of possibilities for iterative improvement, validation, and verification of the research questions and hypotheses (exploratory case studies for RQ#2). On the other hand, the case study research was a “natural complement” (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007) to the deductive modelling explorations. The modelling approach was followed to analyse the case studies by using background knowledge from both SCM philosophy and BIM technology (RQ#3). The quantitative model was applied accompanied from qualitative data analysis in a real- world setting of two cases to explore the research questions (application case studies for RQ#4). The same cases were followed to answer RQ#5. The interaction between exploration and theoretical experimentation provided the final research product: the synthesis of an operational model to describe the future BIM-enabled SC partnerships (RQ#6). Finally, RQ#6 entailed the theoretical synthesis and the construct, i.e. on

methodology, internal, i.e. from the case participants, and external, i.e. from an expert panel, validation steps. These three validation steps were sought, because the thesis is at the intersection of social science, management, and engineering and the main two constructs, BIM and SCM carry different connotations for each field. Explicit information about the research design and the exact methods used to respond to each research question are included in the respective chapters (3 to 6). Figure 3 illustrates the above relations between the research questions and case studies.

Chapters

Ch. 1: Introduction Ch. 2: Background literature

Ch. 3: Exploratory case studies (x5)

Ch. 5: Deep case analysis with the model (x2)

Ch. 6: Intra- and inter-relations (x2)

Questions background relevance methods background validation gap

RQ#1: What Design & Construction challenges could the SCM and BIM concepts potentially manage?

RQ#2: What are the interdependences between BIM technology and SCM practices in real-world settings?

RQ#3: How to combine the SCM with BIM concepts to analyse BIM-enabled SC partnerships?

RQ#4: What are the effects of BIM-enabled SC partnering on the formal and informal processual, product-related and inter- organisational relations of SC?

Main RQ: How to align the SCM philosophy with BIM technologies to achieve integration in the construction industry?

RQ#5: How does BIM impact the intra- and inter-organisational relations of BIM-enabled SC partnerships?

RQ#6: How could the BIM-enabled SC partnerships be shaped from the alignment of SCM philosophy with BIM technology? Ch. 4: Design analysis model (x1) gap

methods

contribution validation

Ch. 7: Discussion: Synthesis & Validation Ch. 8: Reflections, Conclusions & Outlook

FIGURE 3 Relation between the chapters and research questions. The red dashed line includes the case studies and the parentheses indicate the number cases per chapter.

§ 1.5

Research impact

§ 1.5.1

Relevance of the research

The research impact has been considered as to its relevance and limitations. The relevance defines the aspects that the research pertains. The limitations underline the boundaries of the research. This section first presents the relevance of the thesis as to four categories: regional relevance, which is emphasised by the study of cases only in the Netherlands, societal relevance, relevance to practice and relevance to science.

These aspects were further examined to demarcate the necessity for this research as well as the areas where it could be directly applicable.

Regional relevance

The Dutch construction industry was selected as the ground for these empirical explorations with the ultimate goal to generate theory on the combination of BIM technology and SCM practices. Ozorovskaja et al. (2007) claim that the Netherlands represent a model of West European managerial values and practices, which although cannot be generalised, certainly play a cultural role in Europe. The Netherlands was a relevant setting for this PhD research because it is a reactive, progressive, and highly influential market to its neighbouring countries. Three main reasons explain this selection: the (a) attention given to partnering and SCM practices, (b) affinity to innovation regarding construction IT, and particularly BIM, and (c) idiosyncratic characteristics, e.g. risk aversion, of the Dutch market that allows for scalability and generalisability of the observations. Wamelink and Heintz (2015) explain how keen the Dutch construction industry has been to adopting innovations that are integrative in nature, e.g. IPD, BIM, and SCM. The following paragraphs explain the longevity of SCM in the Netherlands, the current advanced level of Dutch BIM maturity and the characteristics of the Dutch construction industry respectively.

Supply Chain thinking in the Netherlands has followed the corresponding shift that took place in the UK (Vrijhoef, 2011). The Rethinking Construction movement for the UK construction was initiated after the publishing of the Rethinking Construction Report from Sir Egan (1998). This movement was sponsored by the government and formed a set of general suggestions to the practitioners of the UK construction. The scope of these recommendations was to ignite change in the construction industry regarding: (1) committed leadership, (2) customer focus, (3) integrated processes and teams, (4) quality-driven agenda and (5) commitment to people (Egan, 1998). Four key actions were identified, to attain these goals, as to (1) product development, (2) project implementation, (3) partnering the supply chain and (4) production of components (Egan, 1998). According to Vrijhoef (2011), the Dutch building industry followed these suggestions seven years later, by focusing on reducing waste, engaging in partnering and focus on collaboration and integration of actors. Whereas there is an abundant scepticism on SCM in the UK (Briscoe & Dainty, 2005; Fernie & Tennant, 2013), it nevertheless seems that SC thinking has been compatible with the culture in the Dutch construction industry.

Netherlands has also been a forerunner in BIM adoption. BIM maturity at a national level could be evaluated in various ways. From a market perspective, reports such as from McGraw-Hill (2014) that conducted research among 727 contractors from “ten countries that represent some of the largest construction markets globally: Australia,

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