The uncanny frailty of human bonds, the feeling of insecurity that frailty inspires, and the conflicting desires that feeling prompts to tighten the bonds yet keep them loose.
― Zygmunt Bauman (2003: viii)
6. 1. 1. Vulnerability
Vulnerability is a dynamic concept, intimately connected to the concept of risk; a vulnerable person is a person at risk of seeing her standard of living worsened. According to Dubois and Rousseau (2008), vulnerability is directly proportional to risk – as one increases so does the other – and it is inversely proportional to capabilities – as capability increases, vulnerability decreases. In this sense, vulnerability is the possibility for an individual to experience a decline in well-being, which in turn lowers the capability to cope with additional shocks and risks.
Vulnerability is a universal human characteristic rooted in our dependency on others, on the frailty of the human body and the changing nature of social institutions (Turner, 2003; Nussbaum, 2003 and 2006). Yet vulnerability shifts, it increases and decreases over time in the life of the individual, as a result of individual, social and environmental factors. The creation of social institutions such a the family, schools, health system, Law, welfare state, churches, among others, stem from the universal, dynamic and transient vulnerable nature of human beings and the need to control and mitigate its negative manifestations.
High levels of vulnerability create vicious cycles; vulnerable people tend to be disadvantaged in more than one dimension related to their capabilities. Likewise vulnerabilities are interconnected; “vulnerabilities may combine and compound their effects on well-being” (Barrientos, 2007: 15). Both capabilities and vulnerability of individuals “are deeply influenced by factors ranging from the prospects of earning a living, to the social and psychological effects of deprivation and exclusion. These include people’s basic needs, employment at reasonable wages and health and education facilities” (Moser, 1998: 3).
The research participants were selected bearing in mind the dynamic concept of vulnerability. All of them had a migrant background, which made them a minority in the host country and more likely to drop out school and, when employed, earn lower salaries due to structural racism present in Spain (IOE, 2007). Furthermore, they had been born in Ecuador and experience the rupture entailed by migration, the rupture with the family and friends left behind in Ecuador, but also with their culture and idiosyncrasies. Some of them managed to subdue and overcome the
manage to adjust to the changes without much suffering. They also had their youth in common, ranging from 15 to 20 years old, and their working class, with their parents being at the bottom of the ladder of the job market in Spain. Although some of them could be considered underclass (Wilson, 1987, Gans, 1990) the term lower-class or working poor might be better suited to depict their social and economic circumstances tainted by precarious jobs and economic instability. As Newman put it, the working poor are “people who toil year-round and either fail to pull above the poverty line or struggle to make ends meet just above it” (2009: xi).
Some of the participants were at risk of social exclusion and capability deprivation as a result of the failure of social institutions, particularly schools, to mitigate their high levels of vulnerability, by redistributing valuable resources and opportunities to enhance their capabilities and consequently their resilience. These disaffected participants risked becoming what has been termed “underclass”, which evokes marginality and social exclusion. They risk growing into “people without role, making no useful contribution to the lives of the rest, and in principle, beyond redemption” (Baumann, 2004:71). According to Gans (1990), the ’underclass’ is represented by school drop-outs, who do not work, teenage parents, teenage gang members, alcohol and drug addicts, homeless, beggars or illegal immigrants. Yet these definitions mask the responsibility of social institutions by focusing on individual characteristics and decisions, rather than highlighting the effect of structural discrimination on these outcomes.
6. 1. 2. Vulnerability Typology
The typology of vulnerability was drawn taking the concept of underclass into account. On these grounds, some of the participants were selected from a high school in a working class area; they were finishing the last year of compulsory education or were enrolled in the first year of high school during the first round of interviews. They were presupposed to be less vulnerable than the second, group, those who were enrolled in remedial short vocational courses. This group were expected to have dropped out school before finishing compulsory education, but had voluntarily decided to get back on track. The third group was to be found in juvenile detention institutions, this criminality was directly related to the concept of underclass. Although gender characteristics were essential for the research, having parity of sex was not the point, since the literature shows that young males of immigrant background are more likely than their female counterparts to drop-out school, belong to gangs and get involved in criminal activities. Thus, the research did not aim to compare the boys and girls in the sample, but the different types of masculinities and femininities described and displayed.
6. 2. The High School Participants
All of the research participants who were completing courses in high school had been born in Ecuador. Migration conveys a rupture, that is, a break from family and friendship ties from the home country exacerbated by the distance and the uncertainty of whether or when they will meet again; a change in terms of geographical space, but also cultural practices. This rupture is experienced by some of the participants as an acute disruption intensified by the cultural shock. Yet, migration does not only entail changes, but also continuities, such as transnational flows and connections. Parents often migrate on behalf of children, to provide a better quality of life and future chances in the new country (Coe et al, 2011).
The dislocation and social rupture entailed by migration is experienced in different shades depending on the individual and the circumstances of migration. Some of them, like Alvaro, arrived in Spain at the age of 6, during his childhood, which would presumably enable an easier adaptation due to the early incorporation into the Spanish education system. According to Oropesa and Landale (1997) this cohort would have an easier adaptation since they would undergo most of their socialisation process in Spain, retaining meagre memories of Ecuador, and consequently having a closer experience to their native counterparts. Yet, some other such as the cases of Jennifer who arrived in Madrid at the age of 13, or Alicia, at the age of 12, would be closer to the 1.25 generation (Oropesa and Landale, 1997), whose socialisation had already started in Ecuador, having a closer experience to first generation migrants than second generation. Although scholars presuppose the later arrival to be a hindrance in terms of acculturation, socioeconomic attainment and mobility, the two girls showed similar if not higher academic achievement than they boys who had arrived at a younger age.
Rather than a question of age of arrival, the answer to why Alicia and Jennifer were higher achievers than Alvaro or Felipe might be related to gender. Female students in general and girls of migration background in particular, tend to outperform boys in educational settings (Suarez- Orozco, Pimentel and Martin, 2009; Fernandez Enguita, 2010). Teachers’ expectations of girls’ more docile and pleasant behaviour works to their advantage. Whereas boys are at higher risk to be victims of racism and physical violence, which seem to be related to the greater vulnerability of migrant background boys to become disengaged and drop out school.
All of the participants, with the exception of Felipe, were living with both their parents. The proportion of mother-head-of-family and other family structures was prevalent among participants who had dropped out and displayed antisocial behaviour, as will be shown in the
well-being has been widely researched (Astone and McLanahan, 1991, Cavanagh et al, 2006), especially the effect of emotional distress caused by parental separation, exacerbated in the cases of domestic violence. The presence of two or more adults in the family, as long as they are caring and there are not other problems, is usually linked to greater financial stability, support and affiliation (Suarez-Orozco, Pimentel and Martin, 2009).
Memo: Alicia High school Female, 16 y.o. (12 y.o.)
Alicia was 16 years old and doing her first year of high school when I first interviewed her in 2011. She was born in 1994/1995 in a small town in the South of Ecuador. Her parents migrated to Spain and she stayed with her grandmother at first and one or two years with her godmother, who was her uncle’s ex-girlfriend. Alicia was 12 years old when she arrived to Madrid in 2006, with her younger brother, two years younger than her.
Her parents completed basic education in Ecuador. In Spain, her mother works as a cleaner and her father as a builder. Her school in Ecuador was close to her house and most of the other students were relatives. She started school when she was 5 years old, a year earlier than the average, but she was doing well, so she became a regular student. The Ecuadorian teachers at her school checked the students’ personal hygiene and appearance and hit students with a rule on their fingers if they misbehaved. She started middle school when she was 11, but she only stayed one more year in Ecuador.
Once in Madrid, she started first year of ESO (compulsory middle school). She missed Ecuador, but there were other Ecuadorian students in her class, which made her feel more comfortable “because you are not the only one among all”. She has always done well in school and is happy when she gets good results.
She often asks herself whether she would go back to Ecuador, but she is torn. She misses her family in Ecuador, but she wants to finish her studies in Spain, because she thinks education is more advanced in Spain. She also considers Spain to be calmer country where there is more freedom. She disliked that in Ecuador people keep an eye on what you do.
She keeps in touch with her family and friends in Ecuador on a daily basis on the internet and once a week over the phone. Most of her friends, mainly Spanish, are from the school. She describes her family as united and charitable that helps each other. Her younger brother is not doing so well in school, so she tries to help him. She has some relatives who are studying at the university in Ecuador. Her parents encourage and support her to go to university.
In the future she would like to study medicine, to become a paediatrician. She is slightly concerned that a shortage of money or the need to get a very high grade to be accepted in medicine faculty may hinder her aspirations.
Approximately 8 months after the second interview, during a phone call with one of her high school teachers I was informed that Alicia had done very well and had great hopes she would get a good result at the Spanish university access test (selectividad), the final exam when leaving high school. In the end, she started a nurse degree at the university, rather than medicine because she did not manage to get a high enough mark at the university access test. Talking to her in 2014 she seemed very happy in her second year of a 4 year nursing university degree course, and hoped to carry on studying a medical surgery specialty two extra years after completing her degree. Her brother had to retake a couple of years in school and was still in the last year of compulsory middle school.
Children of migrants’ academic achievement is below the average attainment of Spanish native students. The presence of other Ecuadorian students seems to foster their integration in school and helps their motivation as was mentioned by most of the participants (Jennifer, Alicia, Alberto). Yet when the presence of other Ecuadorian background students starts to dwindle as they progress to the following year, they feel more isolated and need to readapt, as was referred by Alberto. The presence of conational peers is linked to higher levels of embeddedness or integration in school, since they can offer invaluable help not only in terms of information on how to navigate the education settings, but also emotional support and inclusiveness, soothing the rupture that migration imposes. Peer effect can be positive, in terms of providing affiliation, self-confidence, and information that leads to higher engagement and achievement; but it can also be negative, in terms of distraction, encouraging them to skip classes or misbehave in class (Suarez-Orozco, Pimentel and Martin, 2009).
The academic literature (Mickelson, 1989; Fenández Enguita et al, 2010, Abrams, 2010) points at significant gender differences in terms of education achievement for boys and girls that are corroborated by the cases outlined below. Boys, particularly working class and those belonging to ethnic minorities, present higher risk of becoming disaffected and dropping out (Fenández Enguita et al, 2010). Whereas girls are perceived as having a more convivial character that increases teachers’ expectations leading to positive reinforcement and higher grades. Alicia’s case highlights this gender difference where her brother has had to retake more than one year in compulsory middle school whilst she sailed through high school with the former aspiration to become a doctor.
Alberto, 17 (7 y.o.) High school 1/3/2011 and 16/1/2012
Alberto was 17 years old and he was doing first year of high school (bachillerato) during the first interviews. He had passed to the second and final year of high school during the second interview. He was born in Quito and migrated to Spain in 2001 when he was 7 years old.
In Ecuador he got on well with other classmates. When he arrived to Spain, he felt accepted in the school and does not recall any problems. He adapted easily to the new country, he followed what other students did. There were other Ecuadorian students in class (3 or 4) who helped him adapt to the school routine.
When he started high school he liked it, but now that many of his friends have left or dropped out, he does not like it anymore. When he was doing compulsory education there were other Ecuadorian students in class, but in high school there are much fewer and much more Spaniards. Now that there are fewer Latinos, he feels he has to adapt again and talk to the Spaniards. During the second interview, he was doing the final year of high school. He thought it was easier than the first year because there are fewer subjects; however it is harder work and the teachers go through different topics very quickly. He is doing technological sciences.
short vocational courses (PCPI). He has a good relation with his Spanish class mates and can ask for notes, etc. However he does not get invited to birthday parties or other events.
He would like to be an aeronautical engineer. His uncle and cousin studied engineering in Ecuador. His mother studied up to high school and his father up to the second year at the university. In Spain his mother works as a cleaner and his father used to work in a building site, but at the time of the second interview he was unemployed. His parents are not happy in Spain anymore because they cannot earn money and send remittances. Many of his relatives are returning to Ecuador because of the unemployment levels in Spain. Although things have improved in Ecuador there is still crisis. He would like to go back to Ecuador because he feels more comfortable with Ecuadorian customs, despite arriving to Spain at the age of 7.
His parents have always encouraged him to study so people do not exploit him like they feel they are doing with them. He has to be “someone in life” and earn a “good salary, have his own car, his own house and all that”. He thinks that studying is difficult and takes a long time. But, in his opinion, education gives you the basis for other things in life. He mentioned that luck plays an important role in helping you carry out your plan of life.
He has never belonged to a Latin gang, but there were some students in the high school that belonged to gangs, especially Dominicans and Ecuadorians. He thinks people join gangs because it is fashionable, but it is dangerous, for instance you cannot walk in certain areas, because other gangs could even kill you. A cousin of his joined a gang in Ecuador but decided to leave the gang because they were ordering to commit serious crimes such as murder.
Approximately 8 months after the second interview, during a phone interview with one of her high school teachers I was informed that Alberto had been caught cheating in his last physics exam. The tutor tried to negotiate with the physics teacher but in the end, the teachers committee decided they could not let him go to Spanish university access test (selectividad) as it would create a precedent after his cheating had been a public offence.
After finishing high school, he returned to Ecuador with his family.
Felipe, Alberto and Alvaro explicitly mentioned having relatives who had study at the university in Ecuador. First generation university students, such as Alicia, have to face more challenges in order to access university and gain a degree than those students whose parents or other relatives have graduate degrees. The weight of evidence show that “compared to their peers, first- generation college students tend to be at a distinct disadvantage with respect to basic knowledge about postsecondary education (e.g., costs and application process), level of family income and support, educational degree expectations and plans, and academic preparation in high school” (Pascarella et al, 2004: 250). Likewise, the literature (Loo and Rolison, 1986) predicts a likely socio cultural alienation of the Ecuadorian background students in predominantly Spanish native universities. Several studies show that ethnic minority first-generation university students are especially vulnerable because of the higher risk of poor academic performance and high dropout rates (Dennis et al, 2005). The vulnerability has its roots in the lack of social capital, where the scarce familiarity with the university culture makes it harder to navigate the institutional bureaucracy as well as the University savoir-faire et savoir-être, which reinforces the unequal distribution of valuable assets outside the academic institution. Frequently, family obligations
and economic difficulties may jeopardise fulfilling the tasks assigned to university students. Yet, there is evidence that ethnic minority first generation students develop rewarding strategies to overcome these shortcomings, such as a stronger motivation to succeed due to the higher stakes attached to education to lift them out of poverty (Dennis et al, 2005). But these success stories should not divert the attention from the institutionalised discrimination recreated and normalised through these credentialising institutions that defer unequal rights and privileges upon those holding these certificates which are mainly native students from a middle and upper middle class