Regionalism was defined “as a policy and project whereby states and non-state actors cooperate and coordinate strategy within a given region … [aiming to] … pursue and promote commons goals in one or more issue areas” (Farrell, 2005, p. 24). In addition, regionalism “‘involves primarily the process of institution creation’ and is the intentional product of interstate cooperation [sic]” (Mansfield & Solingen, 2010, p. 147). As a result of promoting common goals and creating new institutions, regionalism is “fostering closer co-operative relations” (Dent, 2016, p. 13). These ideas of regionalism identify some of the ideological aspects behind the creation of regional groups of cross- nation, or multi-nation, entities involved in Antarctic research and their support programs.
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Even though many countries are supporting co-operative international projects, every party conducting research in Antarctica does so aiming to develop its national interests, especially with regards to scientific activities. In the past, nationalism has been one of the factors that drove Antarctic explorations since the Heroic Era (Hemmings, Chaturvedi, Leane, Liggett, & Salazar, 2014) and has been a pillar for the claimant countries, especially Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom, to assert their sovereignty over a portion of the Antarctic. The AT, which Argentina and Chile are Parties to, Article IV, paragraph 2 states that
No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force.
However, Roldan (2015) and Benwell (2017) show how, through the use of cartography for example, Argentina and Chile continue to assert that sectors of Antarctica are part of their national territory.
To have nationalism, there must be something that people recognise as part of them or of their heritage. Nationalism, as defined by Breuilly (1993), builds on three assertions:
(a)There exists a nation with an explicit and peculiar character.
(b)The interests and values of this nation take priority over all other interests and values.
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(c)The nation must be as independent as possible (p. 2).
Martin (2017), analysing Breuilly’s concept of nationalism, describe nationalism as “political movements seeking or exercising state power” (p. 32). How do state power and nationalistic values apply to Antarctica? Hemmings et al. (2014) define national identity and how nationalism might arise in Antarctica underlining how the claimant countries’ policies “puts preserving their territorial position at the top” (p. 5). They also underlined how nationalistic values in Antarctica are different compared to the rest of the world and nationalism “occurs in a “virtual” or mediated form, remote from the territory of the peoples concerned and the states mobilized” (Hemmings et al., 2014, p. 12). For example, Haward (2010) suggest that Australia is committed to the values of the AT, trying to “avoid disputes and reduce discord” (Haward & Bergin, 2010, p. 615), while balancing its own national interests as a claimant state. Bergin (2016) argues that Australia should “be investing strategically in Antarctic science, logistic and diplomacy”. Additionally, Brady (2017c) and Press and Bergin (2017) discuss on the Australia’s position towards other countries, and especially the People’s Republic of China, operating in the Australian Antarctic Territory, East Antarctica, where many countries have built their own facilities and the nationalistic implications. In fact, according to Brady (2017c), the People’s Republic of China, through the three facilities established in the region, is expanding its presence in a triangular sector, which resembles the shape of the territorial claims previously asserted by the seven claimant countries, within the Australian claimed territory.
Martin (2017) defines patriotism, a different form of nationalism, as “harnessed to the goals of the state or government” (Martin, 2017, p.25). This applies to the New
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Zealand Government (2018) that, through the Strategic Defence Policy Statement, points out the fear of not being able to “distinguish between allowed and prohibited activities under the Antarctic treaty system [sic]” (p. 22) and the role that New Zealand has to assume “to ensure peace and stability on its southern flank and in the Ross Dependency, as well as the integrity of the treaty system” (p. 26). However, it has to be noted that New Zealand, and the other claimant Parties – Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Norway, and the United Kingdom –, under AT Article IV, paragraph 1. (b) are entitled to preserve their status. The same applies also the Russian Federation and the United States of America maintaining their basis of claim. Brady (2017b) affirms that also the People’s Republic of China, even though it is not publicly stated, has “potential sovereign rights in Antarctica … based on Chinese exploration and occupation of sites in Antarctica since the 1980s” (p. 191). In addition, Brady (2017b) argues that the People’s Republic of China could use the establishment of Antarctic Specially Managed Area (ASMA) and Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA), which will give them the sole responsibility to manage these areas (Pertierra & Hughes, 2013), to assert their claim Brady (2017b). To have the sole responsibility on the area, the People’s Republic of China firstly mapped the area around Dome A in 2009 (Brady, 2017c). During ATCM XXXVI - CEP XVI (Brussels, Belgium) 2013 the People’s Republic of China submitted Working Paper 38 proposing a new ASMA at Dome A. The proposal was unsuccessful because the People’s Republic of China is the only operator in the area. ASMAs are intended to facilitate co-operation between countries and Kunlun station is the only infrastructure in the area13. “To many observes, China appears to be trying to use an ASMA to gain
13 It has to be noted that a remote-controlled telescope, the High Elevation Antarctic Terahertz Telescope (HEAT) (Walker & Kulesa, 2009) jointly supported by the University of Arizona and the New South Wales University, is operated at Ridge A.
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effective control of Dome A” (Brady, 2017b, p. 212). However, it has to be noted that in accordance with AT Article IV, paragraph 2, “no new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force” limiting the possibility of the People’s Republic of China, and any other claimant or semi-claimant countries, to advance a new claim.
Nationalistic influences, intended as preservation of territorial and strategical positions in Antarctica, are still present in regional groups that, though co-operation, aim to reach results that they might not be able to achieve on their own, while conducting research in the Antarctic Treaty Area. In fact, the basis for regionalism lies on co-operation and cooperative projects to be conducted in a specific region but at the same time every country maintain its own national goals and aims that have to be achieved. A senior employee of an Asian national polar program while discussing on co-operation between players in Antarctica states that “it is much easier to make co- operation with neighbouring countries”14. However, co-operative projects can arise
from need of countries that are not global neighbours but share similar interests in a particular Antarctic region.
Having addressed the issues of defining the words ‘region’ and ‘regionalism’, this chapter proceeds to analyse Antarctic region and regionalism. The first step will be the analysis of regional co-operative projects within Antarctica; subsequently, this contribution will explore regional groups co-operating in multiple Antarctic sub- regions. The majority of the countries involved in Antarctic research are part of both
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Intra and Extra-Antarctic regional groups; Extra-Antarctic groups often operate in more than one Intra-Antarctic region.