Although the basic equipment and testing procedures associated with the resonant frequency techniques have been standardized in various countries, and commercial testing equipment is easily available, the usefulness of the tests is seriously limited for the following reasons:
1. Generally, these tests are carried out on small-sized specimens in a laboratory rather than on structural members in the field because resonant frequencing is affected considerably by boundary conditions and the properties of concrete. The size of specimens in these tests is usually 152 = 305-mm cylinders or 76 = 76 = 305-mm prisms.
2. The equations for the calculation of dynamic elastic modulus involve “shape factor” corrections. This necessarily limits the shape of the specimens to cylinders or prisms. Any deviation from the standard shapes can render the application of shape factor corrections rather complex.
Notwithstanding the above limitations, the resonance tests provide an excellent means for studying the deterioration of concrete specimens subjected to repeated cycles of freezing and thawing and to deterioration due to aggressive media. The use of resonance tests in the determination of damage by fire and the deterioration due to alkali-aggregate reaction have also been reported by Chefdeville26and Swamy
and Al-Asali.44
The resonant frequency test results are often used to calculate the dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete but the values obtained are somewhat higher than those obtained with standard static tests carried out at lower rates of loading. The use of dynamic modulus of elasticity in design calculations is not recommended.
Various investigators have published correlations between the strength of concrete and its dynamic modulus of elasticity. The indiscriminate use of such correlations to predict compressive and/or flexural strength of concrete is discouraged unless similar relationships have been established in the laboratory for the particular concrete under investigation.
References
1. Rayleigh, J.W., Theory of Sound, 2nd ed., Dover Press, New York, 1945.
2. Obert, L. and Duvall, W.I., Discussion of dynamic methods of testing concrete with suggestions for standardization, Proc. ASTM, 41, 1053, 1941.
3. Powers, T.C., Measuring Young’s modulus of elasticity by means of sonic vibrations, Proc. ASTM, 38, Part II, 460, 1938
4. Hornibrook, F.B., Application of sonic method to freezing and thawing studies of concrete, ASTM Bull. No. 101, December 1939, 5.
5. Thomson, W.T., Measuring changes in physical properties of concrete by the dynamic method,
Proc. ASTM, 40, 1113, 1940. Also, discussion by T.F. Willis and M.E. de Reus, pp. 1123–1129.
6. Stanton, T.E., Tests comparing the modulus of elasticity of portland cement concrete as determined by the dynamic (sonic) and compression (scant at 1000 psi) methods, ASTM Bull. No. 131, Dec. 1944, 17. Also, discussion by L.P. Witte and W.H. Price, pp. 20–22.
7. Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and Torsional Resonant Fre- quencies of Concrete Specimens (ASTM C 215-02), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 04.02, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2003
8. Malhotra, V.M., Testing of hardened concrete: nondestructive methods, Monogr. No. 9, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1976, 52.
9. Pickett, G., Equations for computing elastic constants from flexural and torsional resonant fre- quencies of vibration of prisms and cylinders, Proc. ASTM, 45, 846, 1945.
10. Spinner, S. and Tefft, W.E., A method for determining mechanical resonance frequencies and for calculating elastic moduli from these frequencies, Proc. ASTM, 61, 1221, 1961.
11. Orchard, D.F., Concrete Technology, Vol. 2, Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962, 181. 12. Kesler, C.E. and Higuchi, Y., Problems in the sonic testing of plain concrete, Proc. Int. Symp. on
Nondestructive Testing of Materials and Structures, Vol. 1, RILEM, Paris, 1954, 45. Other contri- butions dealing with sonic tests and published in this symposium are listed below:
Vol. 1
(a) Cabarat, R., Measurement of elastic constants by an acoustical procedure, 9.
(b) Stutterheim, N., Lochner, J.P.A., and Burger, J.F., A method for determining the dynamic Young’s modulus of concrete specimens developed for corrosion studies, 18.
(c) Takabayashi, T., Comparison of dynamic Young’s modulus and static modulus for concrete, 34. (d) Arredi, F., Nondestructive tests on concrete specimens performed in the hydraulic structures
laboratory of the engineering faculty of Rome, 55.
(e) Takano, S., Determination of concrete strength by a nondestructive method, 61. (f) Higuchi, Y., Studies presented by the author, 69.
(g) Fujita, K.I., Nondestructive method for concrete, 71.
(h) Ban, S., Activity of the committee on nondestructive concrete inspection of the ASTM, 74. (i) Kilian, G., Evolution of the mechanical and elastic properties of concretes as a function of age, the
proportion of binder and the nature of the aggregates, 75. (j) Report by Lazard, 80.
(k) Daxelhofer, J.P., Concrete anisotropy brought out by the measurement of the dynamic modulus, 89. (l) Daxelhofer, J.P., Remarks on the use of sonic methods for investigating the liability to frost damage
of concretes at the materials testing laboratory of the Lausanne Polytechnical School, 98. (m) Daxelhofer, J.P., Note on the static and dynamic moduli of a concrete, 106.
(n) Daxelhofer, J.P., Note on the variation of the dynamic modulus in function of the water content of a lightweight concrete, 108.
(o) Elvery, R.H., Symposium on the non-destructive testing of concrete, 111.
(p) Beauzee, C., Errors of measurement in the determination of the modulus of elasticity by the sonic method, 120.
(q) Jones, R., The testing of concrete by an ultrasonic pulse technique, 137. (r) Chefdeville, J., The qualitative control, 166.
(s) Andersen, J., Apparatus for determination of sound velocity in concrete and execution of the measurements, 179.
(t) Nerenst, P., Speed of propagation in concrete determined by a condensing chronograph, 184. (u) Nerenst, P., Wave velocity as influenced by curing conditions and age, 200.
(v) Andersen, J., The use of sound-velocity measurements for practical tests of concrete, 205. Vol. 2
(w) Kameda, Y., Awaya, K., and Yokoyama, I., The nondestructive testing of concrete, 209. (x) Voellmy, A., Vibration testing of concrete in structures in Switzerland, 216.
(y) Magnel, G. and Huyghe, G., Determination of the strength of a concrete by a nondestructive process, 219.
(z1) Okushima, M. and Kosaka, Y., Four reports, 248.
(z2) Borges, F., Some uses of ultrasounds at the Laboratorio Nacional de Engenharia Civil, 252. (z3) Mamillan, M., The use of sonic methods for the study of freestones, 259.
(z4) Dawance, G., Application of the vibration test to the study of rocks and rock masses, 275. (z5) Nondestructive testing of bituminous concrete. Relationship between the speed of sound propa-
gation and the temperature of the concrete, 277.
(z6) Moles, A., A geoseismic apparatus for investigating the compactness of soils, 282. 13. Jones, R., Non-Destructive Testing of Concrete, Cambridge University Press, London, 1962. 14. Swamy, N. and Rigby, G., Dynamic properties of hardened paste, mortar, and concrete, Materials
and Structures/Research and Testing (Paris), 4(19), 13, 1971.
15. Jones, R., The effect of frequency on the dynamic modulus and damping coefficient of concrete,
Mag. Concr. Res. (London), 9(26), 69, 1957.
16. Gaidis, J.M. and Rosenberg, M., New test for determining fundamental frequencies of concrete,
Cement Concr. Aggregates, CCAGDP, 8(2), 117, 1986.
17. Thornton, H. and Alexander, A., Development of impact and resonant vibration signature for inspection of concrete structures, ACI Spec. Publ. SP 100, American Concrete Institute, 1987, 667. 18. Kesler, C.E. and Higuchi, Y., Determination of compressive strength of concrete by using its sonic
properties, Proc. ASTM, 53, 1044, 1953.
19. Long, B.G. and Kurtz, H.J., Effect of curing methods on the durability of concrete as measured by changes in the dynamic modulus of elasticity, Proc. ASTM, 43, 1051, 1943.
20. Axon, E.O., Willis, T.F., and Reagel, F.V., Effect of air-entrapping portland cement on the resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete containing inferior coarse aggregate, Proc. ASTM, 43, 981, 1943. 21. Malhotra, V.M. and Zoldners, N.G., Durability Studies of Concrete for Manicouagan-2 Project, Mines Branch Investigation Rep. IR 64-69, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, July 1964.
22. Malhotra, V.M. and Zoldners, N.G., Durability of Non-Air-Entrained Concrete Made with Type I and Modified Type II Cements, Mines Branch Investigation Rep. IR 65-86, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, September 1965.
23. Malhotra, V.M. and Zoldners, N.G., Durability of Non-Air-Entrained and Air-Entrained Concretes Made with Type I and Modified Type II Cements, Mines Branch Investigation Rep. IR 67-29, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, February 1967.
24. Wright, P.J.F. and Gregory, J.M., An investigation into methods of carrying out accelerated freezing and thawing tests on concrete, Mag. Concr. Res. (London), 6(19), 39, 1955.
25. Akman, M.S. and Yildrim, M., Loss of durability of concrete made from portland cement blended with natural pozzolans due to ammonium nitrate, Durability of Building Mater. (Amsterdam), 4(4), 357, 1987.
26. Chefdeville, J., Application of the Method toward Estimating the Quality of Concrete, RILEM Bull. (Paris), No. 15, August 1953, Special Issue-Vibrating Testing of Concrete, 2nd part, 61.
27. Long, B.G., Kurtz, H.J., and Sandenaw, T.A., An instrument and a technique for field determination of the modulus of elasticity and flexural strength of concrete (pavements), ACI J. Proc., 41(3), 217, 1945.
28. Sweet, H.S., Research on concrete durability as affected by coarse aggregate, Proc. ASTM, 48, 988, 1948.
29. L’Hermite, R., The strength of concrete and its measurement, Ann. L’Institut Technique Bâtiment
Travaux Publics (Paris), 12, 3, 1950.
30. Shrivastava, J.P. and Sen, B., Factors affecting resonant frequency and compressive strength of concrete, Indian Concr. J. (Bombay), 37(1), 27, 1963, and 37(3), 105, 1963.
31. Sharma, M.R. and Gupta, B.L., Sonic modulus as related to strength and static modulus of high strength concrete, Indian Concr. J. (Bombay), 34(4), 139, 1960.
32. Kaplan, M.F., Effects of incomplete consolidation on compressive and flexural strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete, ACI J. Proc., 56(9), 853, 1960. 33. Kaplan, M.F., Ultrasonic pulse velocity, dynamic modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio and the
strength of concrete made with thirteen different coarse aggregates, RILEM Bull. (Paris), New Series No. 1, March 1959, 58.
34. Malhotra, V.M. and Berwanger, C., Correlations of Age and Strength with Values Obtained by Dynamic Tests on Concrete, Mines Branch Investigation Rep. IR 70-40, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa, June 1970.
35. Batchelder, G.M. and Lewis, D.W., Comparison of dynamic methods of testing concretes subjected to freezing and thawing, Proc. ASTM, 53, 1053, 1953.
36. Whitehurst, E.A., Evaluation of concrete properties from sonic tests. ACI Monogr. No. 2, American Concrete Institute/Iowa State University Press, Detroit, 1966.
37. Klieger, P., Long-term study of cement performance in concrete. Chapter 10 — Progress Report on Strength and Elastic Properties of Concrete, ACI J. Proc., 54(6), 481, 1957.
38. Philleo, R.E., Comparison of results of three methods for determining Young’s modulus of elasticity of concrete, ACI J. Proc., 51(5), 461, 1955.
39. Hansen, W., Static and dynamic modulus of concrete as affected by mix composition and com- pressive strength, ACI Spec. Publ. SP 95, American Concrete Institute 1986, 115.
40. Gatfield, E.N., A Method of Studying the Effect of Vibratory Stress, Including Fatigue, on Concrete in Flexure, paper presented to the RILEM Technical Committee on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, Varna, Bulgaria, September 3–6, 1968.
41. Chang, T.S. and Kesler, C.E., Correlation of sonic properties of concrete with creep and relaxation,
Proc. ASTM, 56, 1257, 1956.
42. Chang, T.S. and Kesler, C.E., Prediction of creep behavior in concrete from sonic properties, Proc. Highw. Res., Board, 35, 436, 1956.
43. Thornton, H. and Alexander, A., Development of Nondestructive Testing Systems for In Situ Evaluation of Concrete Structures, Tech. Rep. REMB-CS-10, Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MI, December 1987.
44. Swamy, R.N. and Al-Asali, M.M., Engineering properties of concrete affected by alkali-silica reac- tion, ACI Mater. J., 85(5), 367, 1988.