La hegemonía, los bienes públicos y los regímenes internacionales

The main model considered for this study is OSAM because it captures some of the characteristics specific to shopping online. The development of the OSAM has involved the incorporation of consumer factors generated from marketing theories and traditional retail. These factors are inherited from the TAM, but the OSAM re-examines and aligns them specifically with online shopping, which is the main subject of this study. This re- examination involves developing a model that can be used to predict and explain consumer acceptance of online shopping, which includes seeking information on the product and its purchase (Fang et al., 2016).

Furthermore, the TAM was widely used in studies in an online shopping setting; however, it does not involve activities that are specifically related to shopping online, such as virtual browsing. The primary reason for developing the TAM was to explain and predict computer usage behaviour among the Internet community (Moon & Kim, 2001). As a result, even though the TAM is a more established theory, it is not specific to online shopping; thus, it will not be used in this study. There is an increased online experience and therefore consumers largely rely on their own shopping experiences. This study does not use the TAM for the following reasons:

1) TAM was designed to explain the acceptance and use of technology but does not clearly relate technology to the opposing choices from which consumers can choose; therefore, TAM handles the Internet separately from the offline channel. PU refers to the comparative advantages of Internet use, e.g., how Internet shopping enhances effectiveness and saves time, but it does not address the transactions that have to be made by consumers.

2) The TAM places more focus on the perceptions of technological application, thus covering the role of retailers (Zhou et al., 2007). It makes the assumption that e-retailers do not differ in their performance when predicting online channel adoption. The PU concept is extensive, i.e., it refers to utility but does not differentiate saving time and effort from improving outcome quality. Therefore, it is unclear whether consumers see the Internet as a useful tool due to its superiority and variety of products, lower prices, time savings or better service.

3) The relationship between intention and behavior is accepted both in the social sciences and in the field of information systems (IS). However, there are three challenges to characterizing this relationship. First, theories on the movement from intention to behavior take behavior as the destination; the models do not account for the fact that a behavior may sometimes be considered as a means to other objectives. For instance, the goal of software- purchasing behavior is to deal with information efficiently rather than to own the software. The TAM model incorporates the merits of use beyond acquisition.

4) In addition, the problems with TAM are not entirely peculiar to it but inhere as well in the TRA and TPB, which should bring pause to accepting any proposal suggesting that the TRA and TPB constitute panaceas. For purposes of organization, I maintain that the primary shortcomings of the TAM (and the TRA and TPB) reside in (a) two critical gaps in the framework, (b) neglect of the group, social, and cultural aspects of decision making, and (c) online shopping environments.

5) The gap between use and objective accomplishment is ignored in the TAM apart from the assumption of upstream in the TAM. Further, it is important for the TAM to clearly represent the end-state objective or goal for which technology is used, as discussed below. In addition, factors and events that occur between the development of an intention and the final action must be considered. The duration between intention and action can be of any length; during this time, various distracting or attracting events may arise, some of which may also be unpredictable.

a realisation of the attractions and deviations in the time before they act; they then seek other solutions to deal with any ambiguity that may arise. Consequently, consumers tend to take a step or acquire a technology that re-determines their viewpoint, and this is not only related to behaviour (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012).

6) The most important element lacking from TAM is the connection between consumers’ reactions to using technology and their intentions. A wide range of influences is accepted by consumers when developing an intention for carrying out an action. The TAM and TRA discuss two influences, whereas the TPB determines three. Practically, these dimensions are assumed to be a result of various beliefs and considerations. Further, two factors call for attention. First, there is the probability of missing a convincing motivation toward an action based on an assumption (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012). For example, a person can recognize and even accept that PU or attitudes are favourable criteria for deciding to act, but have no desire to act and even explicitly decide not to act in the face of these reasons. In other words, PU and attitudes need not contain or constitute motives to act for any particular decision maker or specific situation. A second issue to consider is how multiple reasons for acting or not acting, which can be considerable in number, are reconciled and transformed into a decision or intention to act.

The internalisation process results from socialisation and psychological development, where individuals are subject to participation with respect to gender, family, ethnicity or similar and related group settings. It can also occur through groups in educational communities, training, adapting to instruction within some organisations and so on. A reference group is usually determined to be a mix of both ideas.

9) TAM identifies a process utilized in the study of online shopping environments. This process does not integrate the specific characteristics pertaining to online shopping. For instance, the online shopping environment aims at enticing more consumers to shop online, as opposed to being merely generic information systems. Therefore, this study integrates various consumer factors from traditional retailing and marketing theories to enhance effective development of the OSAM. Additionally, the factors inherited from the TAM

developed to enhance the prediction and explanation of consumer acceptance of online shopping. This was achieved by extending the belief-attitude-intention-behaviour relationship in the TAM through the integration of the following perspectives:

- Social media acts as a platform between consumer behaviour and shopping intention to account for repeated online shopping.

- The integration of consumer demographics and online shopping experience, and their direct or indirect effects on online shopping intentions.

- Perceived usefulness was replaced by perceived outcome to cover both the potential benefits and risks of online shopping.

- Three new factors were added as antecedents of online shopping intention. Two of them – namely, shopping orientation and shopping motivation (Childers et al., 2001) – were identified from traditional retailing and marketing literature, and the third – online experience – was derived from the results of empirical studies (Huang, 2003; Lynch et al., 2001; Xia, 2002).

- Satisfaction was a new mediating factor between behavior and shopping intention to account for repeated online shopping.

On other hand, this study found that integration across theories can be viewed in terms of the utility maximization theory of economics, in which the utility of an alternative is positively related with its benefits and negatively related to its costs. The evaluation, weighting, and way of combining benefits and costs may vary by individual, but each individual is assumed to balance the benefits of each alternative against its costs and to choose the one with the highest net benefits or utility. For example:

(1) In the TRA, both attitudes and subjective norms can be positive with respect to the behavior (benefits) or negative (costs). For example, in Cho (2004), an inability to physically examine the goods and concerns over delivery and return can be viewed as liabilities or disadvantages of e-shopping, while the saving of effort it makes possible can be viewed as a benefit.

(2) Similarly, in the TPB, measures of perceived behavioral control (e.g., the site accessibility and transaction efficiency of Limayem et al., 2000) represent costs or benefits of adoption, depending on whether the measure is positively or negatively oriented, and whether a shopping alternative rates high or low on it. Cost measures can in some cases represent prohibitively high costs or outright constraints, and in other cases may fall on a continuum constituting gradually stronger disincentives to adopt. The converse is true for benefit measures.

(3) In the TAM, usefulness and ease of use are two categories of benefits (or, if negatively oriented, costs) which broadly construed can contain most or all of the constructs of the other theories. For example, a negative subjective norm can be viewed as reducing the ease of use of an alternative.