HERPES SIMPLE

Functionings and capabilities are the core concepts of the capability approach which is a substantive theory used in the study. The study adopts the concepts as defined by Amartya Sen. A functioning is “the various things a person may value doing or being” (Sen, 1999:75) which are the practical realisation of one‟s chosen way of life. Capabilities are “the alternative combination of functionings that are feasible for [a person] to achieve; they are „the substantive freedom‟ a person has to lead the kind of life he or she has reason to value” (Sen, 1999:87). While capabilities and functionings are inextricably linked, they remain distinct (ibid.). Capabilities represent a possibility instead of an actuality (ibid.). Of interest to this study was to understand what Life Sciences teachers‟ valued beings and doings were in relation to biodiversity teaching. The study argues that in the PLCs Life Sciences teachers might have similar functionings but different capabilities and thus they require different resources to achieve their valued beings and doings related to biodiversity teaching (Robeyns, 2005a).

1.10.2 Conversion factors

Another concept that is central to the capability approach is the concept of conversion factors. In this study I adopt a definition of conversion factors as defined by Robeyns (2005a:99): “factors that can allow people to convert resources to new functionings”. Robeyns (2005a) distinguished between three conversion factors that can constrain or enable capabilities. These are social, environmental and personal conversion factors. Thus, an individual teacher in a PLC‟s capability is dependent on these conversion factors (Robeyns, 2005a). In the study, I sought to understand the Life Sciences teachers‟ functionings and the outcomes as a result of different conversion factors within the PLC and from Fundisa for Change (Robeyns, 2005a).

1.10.3 Agency

The concept of agency is confusing, vague and elusive. Emirbayer and Mische (1998) noted that, despite the long list of terms with which it has been associated (selfhood, motivation, will, purposiveness, intentionality, choice, initiative, freedom, and creativity) the concept is still being debated. From the capability approach perspective, the concept of agency underpins Sen‟s idea of freedom as not only the primary end but also the principal means of development (Sen, 1999). Agency is defined as the ability to act according to what one values or in Sen‟s words – “what a person is free to do and achieve in pursuit of whatever goals or values he or she regards as important” (Sen, 1985:206). However, according to Archer (1995), agency refers to the reflexive, creative, innovative, and purposeful actions of people. It refers to the choices that people make in their daily lives which either reinforce existing structures and cultures or transform them (ibid.). In

refers to their ability to act, think, value and do (Cundill et al., 2014). The concept of agency in this study also refers to why Life Sciences teachers do things, and why they choose to do certain things instead of others in relation to their valued beings and doings that are related to the teaching and learning of biodiversity (ibid.).

1.10.4 Structure

Structures are a concept central to critical realism which is the meta -theory used in this study. Structure “suggests a set of internally related elements whose causal powers, when combined, are emergent from those of their constituents” (Sayer, 2000:14). Structures entail the identification of material resources, both physical and human, their relationships, and the powers they have over the actions of people (Archer, 1995). They exist independently of what people know, think, or feel about them, thus can be explored independently (ibid.). Structures exert causal influence on people‟s actions (ibid.). In this study, structures are used to refer to the material aspect of things such as resources and the way people and things are socially organised at the global, national, policy development and PLC level (Archer, 1995).

1.10.5 Professional Learning Communities

There are many terms associated with the concept of PLCs. Among them are teacher learning communities, teacher networks, critical friends groups, study groups, teacher research collaboration, learning team model, professional networks and networked learning communities (Norman, Golian, & Hooker 2005). There are also many interpretations for the concept of PLCs. The ISPFTED that triggered the concept of PLC in this study defines PLCs as “communities that provide the setting and necessary support for groups of classroom teachers, school managers and subject advisors to participate collectively in determining their own developmental trajectories, and to set up activities that will drive their development” (South Africa. DHET & DBE, 2011a:14). In relation to the ISPFTED definition, the focus of the study is on teachers (FET Life Sciences teachers engaging with biodiversity aspects of the Science curriculum in a PLC). There is however consensus among a number of authors that the concept of a PLC means “a group of teachers sharing and critically interrogating their practice in an ongoing, reflective, collaborative, inclusive, learning-oriented, growth-promoting way to support innovation and knowledge sharing” (Stoll, Bolam, McMahon, Wallace, & Thomas, 2006: 223). In this study, I argue that the concept of a PLC is inadequately and vaguely understood in the South African context; I consider the concept underdeveloped and aim to contribute to the further development of the concept of PLCs in the South African context. To be able to provide insights into the definition, I used the Life Sciences training conducted by the Fundisa for Change programme on biodiversity to mirror what is and what can be seen to be PLCs and PLC activities that can contribute to teachers‟ professional development. PLCs used in the study are thus course initiated PLCs. Adapting Stoll et al.‟s (2006: 223) definition, I worked with

the definition of PLCs as a “space where teachers come together to reflect and share practices, and interrogate their learning collaboratively under the supportive conditions” of the continuing professional development programme.

1.10.6 (Continuing) professional development

There are many concepts used for professional development including staff development, in-service training, professional learning, or continuing education (Kennedy, 2005; 2014; Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009). The concept of professional development broadly refers to formal and informal activities that teachers engage in to improve their professionalism (Kennedy & McKay, 2011). More specifically, Guskey (2000) has defined professional development as participation in a process to improve teaching. Viewed differently by Mokhele and Jita (2010), writing in South Africa, professional development involves systematic efforts to bring about change in the classroom practices of teachers, in their attitudes and beliefs, and in the learning outcomes of learners. Villegas-Reimers (2003) asserted that teacher professional development is not merely about upgrading teachers‟ careers or an individual‟s personal growth, but is a long-term process that includes regular opportunities and experiences planned systematically to promote growth and development in the profession. In this study, the concept of professional development used is “all types of professional learning undertaken by teachers beyond the point of initial training, the concomitant skills learnt and developed in these learning processes, and changes in approaches to practice resulting from them” (Evans, 2002:134).

1.10.7 Biodiversity

Authors from the Netherlands noted that the concept of biodiversity is ill defined (Wals, 1999; Van Weelie & Wals, 2002). Wals (1999) made the point that biodiversity is not one broad concept, but rather a group of ill-defined concepts (such as genes, species, habitat, ecosystem diversity, process of evolution etc.). Saito (2013) argued that the difficulty in understanding the concept of biodiversity is not that it is ill defined but rather the complexity around the concept. “There is, in truth, great complexity around this concept and its web of relationships: biodiversity involves richness and diversity on three different levels (ecosystem, species and genes) and these patterns are connected to cultural, social and economic issues, among others” (ibid.:12). In South Africa, the C.A.P.E Biodiversity Conservation Education Programme (2010) defined biodiversity as “the variety of life on earth – all of the genes, species, ecosystems and processes that allow life to persist over time” (p.3). This study has worked with the definition of biodiversity from the Convention on Biological Diversity: “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems” (United Nations,