There are different parameters for distinguishing rural versus urban areas around the world, including population size, demographic density, land use, public infrastructure, and the extent of local industrial development (Isserman, 2005; Pateman, 2011; Stewart, 1958). In the context of Vietnam, an area defined as rural relies primarily on agricultural production and is characterised by local socioeconomic, cultural and natural features unique to that particular community (T. T. T. Dung, 2014). In accordance with this constitutional definition of ruralness, the Vietnam Ministry of Education (MoET, n.d.) issues guidelines for urban-rural area divisions in which students coming from rural areas are entitled to special privileges in the university entrance examination as acknowledgement of their limited educational resources (see 2.2.2 for further details).
2.2.1 Language learning facilities and resources
Vietnam is composed of three major geographical regions, namely the North, the Central region, and the South. Within the scope of the present study, only aspects related to language education in the South are presented based on particular sociocultural features compared to other regions. In recent years, the Vietnamese government has been upgrading rural infrastructure in an attempt to equalise educational attainment nationwide, mainly by providing funds for constructing
Chapter Two: English Language Learning in Rural Southern Vietnam
new schools or renovating the available infrastructure (Holsinger, 2005, 2009; London, 2011; World Bank, 2009). This, however, only helps to improve the facade of these schools, without further investment in the facilities, and rural schools still have a severe lack of dedicated equipment for specific subject areas, especially for English learning and teaching (Chinh, Linh, Quynh, & Ha, 2014). A school with up to forty classes may have only two or three CD players for English teachers to share among themselves. School libraries have very limited resources in English. Classrooms for language learning are the same as for other school subjects, with fixed seating, making it difficult to conduct communicative activities (see Image 2.1). Kam (2002) states that the shortage of English teaching materials and facilities in Vietnam, especially in remote and rural areas, is “a special challenge to the education authorities” (p. 14).
Image 2.1: English lessons taking place in the same classroom as for other subjects, with fixed seating
Unlike some schools in the North and Central regions where facilities and staff shortages may limit access to English language learning, all students in the South can learn English in their curriculum; this point is based on discussions in the mass media, personal communication, and observations. While urban students may have rich access to English learning resources outside the classroom, students in rural schools mainly rely on their teachers and English TV programmes. Foreign language centres in rural localities are rare, so are bookstores that sell English reference materials. As a result, English learners in rural areas are in dire need of learning resources and a communicative
Chapter Two: English Language Learning in Rural Southern Vietnam
environment for language practice beyond the school context (Chinh et al., 2014).
The limitations in facilities, language resources and social support for language learning are a major threat to the teaching and learning quality in rural high schools. In Ngu’s (2004) words, “rural areas are seen to be receiving an inferior quality of educational service, and hence a lower overall academic attainment in the population compared with that in the urban areas” (p. 227). The disadvantageous conditions pose a real challenge to students in rural areas in their language learning.
2.2.2 Students’ language learning attitudes
To compensate somewhat for the challenges that students in rural areas face, they are eligible for 0.5 to 1.5 bonus marks in the university entrance examination (MoET, 2012). This aims to encourage these students to proceed to higher education and narrow the literacy gap between rural and urban areas. The policy applies to all fields of study rather than only foreign languages.
Despite the paucity of formal research on the language learning attitudes of Vietnamese students in rural areas, their resignation and even resistance to learning English at school is well-documented in the local mass media. The absence of communicative environments for using English, the teaching approaches, and, most importantly, students’ fear of not being able to compete with peers from urban centres in the university entrance examination are the primary factors that undermine their desire to learn languages (based on personal communication and analysis of feedback in local newspapers). Instead, they choose to specialise in natural science subjects which may give them a higher chance to enter a good university.
In rural areas in Vietnam, parents tend to encourage their children to pursue high- profile occupations for a better economic future, such as in medical science, engineering, or finance, for their career (Lich & Thanh, 2015; H. Nam, 2011).
Chapter Two: English Language Learning in Rural Southern Vietnam
There have also been greater demands for jobs in these fields than in social sciences (Goodwin, O’Connor, & Quinn, 2009; World Bank, 2013). As a result, students’ enrolments in these academic disciplines far outweigh the rest (see World Bank, 2008 for the statistics of enrolments by discipline). To be able to enter their desired university, students spend more time on the subjects in their preferred exam groups and less on English as well as other social science ones. 2.2.3 Teachers’ professional development
MoET empowers provincial or municipal education departments across the country to organise training courses and workshops for local English teachers to ensure their equal access to professional development programmes. Within its 2020 Foreign Language Project (see MoET, 2008; 2014c for details), Ho Chi Minh University of Education, Can Tho University, and SEAMEO RETRAC3 were appointed as the primary institutions in Southern Vietnam for training language teachers following the criteria established by the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (see Council of Europe, 2001 for details). The goal is to help all high school English teachers, both urban and rural, to achieve the C1 level in CEFR. Despite MoET’s attempt to enhance the qualifications and teaching quality of teachers across Vietnam, the disparities between teachers from rural and urban areas remain substantial (Hamano, 2008; Vang, 2003). In fact, schools in rural areas are usually understaffed and most teachers do not meet the national standards (Horn, 2014; London, 2011). A recent survey showed that nearly ninety percent of high school English teachers in most rural provinces in the South fell short of the required CEFR level (Huong & Giang, 2012). Improving the language competence of these teachers is a real challenge to local education stakeholders and the teachers themselves.
Other issues confronting English teachers in rural areas are the teaching facilities, workload, and students’ low language level. Large classes, inflexible seating arrangements, and the lack of language teaching aids discourage teachers from
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Chapter Two: English Language Learning in Rural Southern Vietnam
applying the methodological innovations they encounter in professional development workshops (Canh & Barnard, 2009; Hiep, 2001; Kam, 2002; Lewis & McCook, 2002). In addition to long class hours, English teachers have to assume various administrative tasks such as preparing students’ academic reports and meeting parents (Shankar, 2010; Tuoi Tre News, 2014). Also, because most students in rural areas do not perform well in English, teachers have to spend a good deal of class time helping them to revise basic knowledge in English and concurrently cover the new lessons in the high school curriculum. The time and attention spent on ensuring that low-achieving students can meet schools’ achievement targets may leave teachers little energy to cater for students who do have an interest in learning English or intend to pursue it as a major in their future studies at university.
2.2.4 Parental involvement
A majority of households in rural Southern Vietnam work in the agricultural sector (World Bank, 2011). Most parents do manual work and are employed on an occasional basis. Family incomes are unstable due to the nature of their jobs, resulting in their inability to afford good study conditions for their children. According to Holsinger (2009), household educational expenditure per high school student in rural areas is only half the amount spent by urban parents. Although the tuition fees of public schools in Vietnam are relatively small, they may still be a financial burden to some parents in rural districts (World Bank, 2005, 2009). In some cases, students are required to terminate their schooling to assist their parents by earning money, partly accounting for the dramatic differences in dropout rate between rural and urban schools (see Quyen, 2011 for detailed statistics). Due to their financial constraints, most students in rural areas have to rely on public education and their own efforts in their study. However, some better-off parents may send their children to private classes for extra academic support, which has become an emerging trend in rural areas in Vietnam (World Bank, 2013) (see 2.4 for details).
Chapter Two: English Language Learning in Rural Southern Vietnam
According to World Bank (2013) and the mass media in Vietnam, a high proportion of parents in rural areas have very low literacy levels, making it hard for them to provide their children with academic support. Some pre-literate parents may not be aware of their children’s needs, especially in regard to language learning, to give them appropriate support and counselling. For other parents, the life difficulties arising out of their low literacy may become the main impetus for their enthusiastic involvement in their children’s studies. Their general expectation seems to be that their children can have a better future than their own through higher education.