As for the study’s epistemology, the researcher will follow Islamic epistemology in answering how knowledge can be acquired. There are two domains of knowledge according to Islamic epistemology: revealed knowledge (Azram 2011) and acquired knowledge (Barise 2005). Islam views the concept of human as the vicegerent of God and God is the ultimate source of both types of knowledge (Barise 2005; Azram 2011).
There are four major sources of revealed knowledge which are the Qur’an, the Sunnah of Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him), ijma’42 of Islamic scholars and qiyas43 (Khan
1999, p. 65; Nazlida Muhamad 2011, p. 38).
41 See Quran SurahAl-Jinn Verse 26 and Surah al-Hashr Verse 22. 42 The unanimous agreement of the Muslim scholars
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These are the nucleus of the Islamic rulings or Shari’ah. The human intellect interacts with God’s creation (other humans and the environment) to develop acquired knowledge. In other words, the source of revealed knowledge is God’s word and inspiration, while the source of acquired knowledge is God’s creation (Barise 2005).
It is important to take note that from Islamic perspective, these two knowledge, revealed and acquired, are integrated into a unified knowledge: ‘ilmi44 (Faridi 1999). This is based on the belief that comes from the only One existing God (Barise 2005). Thus, this study will follow this approach of epistemology of which can be said as normative and it lies in between the two extremes of objectivism and subjectivism.
7.1.1.3 The Present Study Methodology
Many scholars use a quantitative approach to measure customer satisfaction (Ndamnsa 2013; Tsang 2013). However, the need for a broad and in-depth explanation of the antecedents of customer satisfaction involving different cultural and religiosity factors has opened up an opportunity for mixed methods research, even though the majority of the work done in assessing customer satisfaction is based on quantitative methods (Newman and Cowling 1996; Burton et al. 2001).
Nevertheless, studies have also been conducted using qualitative and mixed methods. For instance, the most cited researchers, Parasuraman et al. (1988), employed a mixed method in their research and are labelled as constructivists. However, there are also elements of positivism in their mixed methods.
For instance, studies compiled in Appendix 8 revealed that the survey technique dominates customer satisfaction research. The ratio of other data collection techniques to survey is about 1 to 10, indicating that survey method is strongly preferred.
This preference is probably due to the quantitative fraternity finding it difficult to accept qualitative methods in research. In contrast, the qualitative fraternity sees the quantitative method as unrealistic since it is unable to explain a researched phenomenon in depth. The
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debate about these research paradigms would never end since the ontological backgrounds between quantitative and qualitative are incompatible (Bryman and Bell, 2003).
This situation will create chaotic arguments when involving mixed methods since some believe it is impossible to combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a research design. Bryman and Bell (2003) further elaborate that there are two versions of debates on why researchers are cautious in mixing quantitative and qualitative methods.
The first is from an epistemological view, and the second is from a technical view. The epistemological view does not support an incompatibility between quantitative and qualitative methods since the research methods are embedded in the epistemology and ontology.
However, the technical view supports mixed methods because research methods are perceived as autonomous (Bryman and Bell, 2003). Contradicting the epistemological account, the technical version sees qualitative and quantitative research as compatible, feasible and desirable. Bryman (2008) is one of the advocators of meshing quantitative and qualitative research together. He believes that “at the practical level, integrating them would be feasible and even desirable in many contexts” (Bryman 2008, p. 6).
In addition, following the ontological and epistemological position of the study, the study follows the synthesis method, where during its course of investigation it links parts to the whole, seeks overall purposes in segments and fits the pieces of reality into the total design (Faridi 1999). In other words, it desegregates the material and spiritual aspects of reality. This study applies a mixed method research design based on the technical version in light of normative science by referring scientific findings back to the four major sources of knowledge. The Servqual model is a good example where the technical view is applied. The model is labelled as constructivist, but there are still elements of positivism in the research (for example, developing hypotheses for the five dimensions in testing the relationship directions of the dimensions with service quality).
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Table 5-1: A Continuum of Philosophical Positions on the Origin of Knowledge
Material Determinism Mental Determinism Interactionism Philosophy Empiricism (Common sense, Logical Empiricism) Socioeconomic Constructionism (Marxism, Sociology of Knowledge, Ethnomethodology, Genetic Structuralism)
Islamic world view Normative Synthesis Interpretivism (Hermeneutics, Semiotics, Structural Criticism) Subjectivism (Phenomenology, Existentialism) Rationalism (Ideals, Innate Ideas, Archetypes)
View of Reality Physical Construction of Reality (PCR)
Social Construction of Reality (SCR)
Physical and Spiritual Unity of reality Linguistic Construction of Reality (LCR) Individual Construction of Reality (ICR) Mental Construction of Reality (MCR)
View of human Nature
Homo Sensans Homo Socius Human as vicegerent of
God Homo Narrans Homo Individuals
Homo Cogitans View of relevant Method Measurement (Survey) Experiment Observing Documenting Discussing Reconstructing Dialectics Materialism Can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed but normative. Text and narrative Interviews Semiotics Personal experience Phenomenology Projective techniques Reasoning Structuralism Prototypes Archetypes
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In achieving the research objectives, many research methods could theoretically be applied and the most popular method is using a survey. However, the researcher will try to explore a mix of methods that will fit the purpose in answering the research questions (Karatepe et al. 2005).
Fontana and Frey (1994) quoted in Mason (2002) have also given examples of how different types of interviews are suited for certain situations (Mason 2002). In summary, the present study takes the Islamic worldview approaches in its ontology, epistemology and methods where it lies in between objectivism and subjectivism.