Historia del turismo en Ecuador

The following subsections (3.7.1-3.7.2), underline the most important methodological approaches used in destination image research so far. Echtner and Ritchie‟s model of destination image (1991, 1993) and Jenkins (1999) are employed in this thesis.

3.4.1 Methodology developed by Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993, 2003)

The methodology developed by Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993, and 2003) was discussed in chapter 2 of this thesis. As stated in sections 3.3 and subsection 3.6 above, the majority of destination tourism research has mainly concentrated on the attribute-based technique (structured or quantitative method) to measure the tourism destination image. This technique focuses on the pre-determined constructs imposed by the researcher. Jenkins (1999) pointed out that tourism destinations image research faces the problem that destination images are seen as holistic rather than other components. Therefore, Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993) developed a hybrid approach to measure destination image, which became famous in tourism image research. Examples of it in use are Vaughan and Edwards (1999) in their study on the perceptions of the Algarve and Cyprus, which mirrored Echtner and Ritchie‟s model, and Choi et al. (1999) who adopted the qualitative (unique-common)/quantitative (attribute-holistic) model of Echtner and Ritchie in their assessment of Hong Kong as a tourist destination. Murphy (1999) employed Echtner and Ritchie‟s structured and unstructured methodologies in the measurement of Australia's destination image as perceived by backpacker travellers and Jenkins (1999) used the model of Echtner and Ritchie (1991) to explain the components of destination image. White (2005) pointed out the functional/holistic image conceptualisation of Echtner and Ritchie (1993) and O‟Leary and Deegan (2005) used Echtner and Ritchie‟s qualitative and quantitative methodology to assess the image of Ireland in France and Stepchenkova and Morison (2008) employed Echtner and Ritchie‟s model to measure the image of Russia amongst US pleasure travellers. Echtner and Ritchie (1991, 1993) developed a series of open-ended questions (unstructured constructs) to measure the holistic components

of destination image. On the other hand, they created a set of scales (quantitative or structured constructs) to measure the common, attribute-based components of destination image. Finally, they developed three open-ended questions, to capture the holistic and unique components of destination. These questions include the following:

1. What images or characteristics come to mind when you think of X as a vacation destination? (Functional holistic component).

2. How would you describe the atmosphere or mood that you would expect to experience while visiting X? (Psychological holistic component).

3. Please list any distinctive or unique tourist attractions that you can think of in X (Unique component).

Echtner and Ritchie (1993, p.6) developed a list of 35 attributes to measure the attribute-based component of tourism destination image. Echtner and Ritchie (1993) summarise previous destination image research between 1975 and 1990. Jenkins (1999), on the other hand, conducted a study on destination image literature between 1991 and 1996 and found that the most commonly mentioned attributes were scenery and natural beauty, natural attractions, hospitality and local people, and climate.

However, Jenkins (1999) reviewed past research on tourism destination image measurement and found that 48 attributes were employed in 28 image studies, and that the most commonly captured attributes were scenery/natural attractions;

hospitality/friendliness/receptiveness; climate; cost/price levels and nightlife/entertainment.

3.4.2 A proposed destination image research process (Jenkins 1999)

Figure 3.1 below outlines a broad model for destination image research developed by Jenkins (1999). The model integrates two phases of research, the qualitative and quantitative phases. The qualitative phase uses unstructured methods, such as content analysis and free elicitation, to find the construct relevant to the population of the study. The quantitative phase is more concerned about measuring the images of destination using quantitative (structured) methods, such as Likert and semantic differential scales.

Figure 3.1: A model for destination image research (Jenkins 1999)

3.4.2.1 The Qualitative phase: construct elicitation

Construct elicitation of images from the population of the study by using qualitative methods reduces the risk of forcing respondents to react to a standardised (structured) construction, which may not be a precise representation of their images. Destination image researchers mostly employed content analysis and free elicitation (Jenkins 1999). Content analysis is an approach associated with qualitative research used to analyse the content of written information, usually documents and texts, in a systematic conduct to quantify their content by categorising the similar constructs in one category (Bryman 2008, p.275). Analysing the contents of written information such as brochures, guidebooks or visual information including post cards, photographs in brochures can provide significant amounts of information about the images of the destination. The researcher analysed the content of brochures about Jordan from some British and Swedish tour operators who sell to Jordan. This analysis has been discussed in more detail in subsection 3.3.1 above. Free elicitation (word association) has been used thoroughly in marketing research (Jenkins 1999). It takes the form of open-ended question such as „please name three images that come to your mind when thinking of Jordan as a tourist destination‟. Then the responses are coded into similar categories and the frequencies are recorded. For example, friendly people, hospitable people, kind people, etc are coded in one category called local people. Reilly (1990)

Qualitative Phase

Purpose: To find the construct used by the study population in their cognition of destination image.

Methods: Construct elicitation techniques such as interviews, content analysis, triad elicitation and photo elicitation.

Relevant Construct

Quantitative Phase

Purpose: To measure tourist destination image according to relevant constructs.

Methods: Two rating scales are required:

 Evaluative preference of the destination.

 Construct preference (or importance).

used free elicitation to investigate the image of Montana as a destination.

Respondents were asked to write three words that best represent the state of Montana as a vacation destination. Then responses were coded into similar categories; for example, hospitality; climate; prices; culture, and then different types of responses were recorded. Reilly hypothesises that responses of less than five per cent of the whole sampled population are rather enough to be counted. Advantages of free elicitation include allowing respondents to record the images that are most important to them, not to the researcher‟s predetermined constructs; it measures the strength and weaknesses of a destination (in case the respondent did not provide responses). On the other hand, free elicitation encounters the problem of lacking in-depth processing by reacting rapidly to stereo typed images of the destination.

3.4.2.2 The Quantitative phase: measuring image

Once constructs or attributes have been identified by respondents to describe destination images, then the researcher can use structured techniques or methods to measure directly the images held by the population of the study. Measurement can include asking the respondent to rate a certain destination according to different attributes, such as those in Figure 3.2 in subsection 3.3.1 below. Most researchers use two types of scales, five or seven Likert or semantic differential scaling techniques.

There are two important aspects of scaling methods (Jenkins, 1999): (1) Respondents can evaluate the destination according to certain attributes provided (e.g. „How do you evaluate Jordan in terms of archaeological heritage? (where 1= offers little to 7=

offers much). This rating is called evaluative perception. (2) Respondents rate the importance of the attribute to them (e.g. „how important is scenic beauty in your personal travel decision-making? Please rate on the following scale: 1 = not at all important to 7 = very important‟. This rating is called the construct preference.

These rating techniques help the researcher to understand the images held by respondents and they enable him/her to assign weights to the images according to their importance. Moreover, these techniques allow the researcher, marketer to know the images of market segments according to travel preferences.