This brief review demonstrates several meaningful interpretations of Zech 13–14. After a summary of the findings, I suggest some ways that these conclusions could inform the interpretation of Mark’s use of Zechariah throughout the Gospel and in Mark 13.
In 1 En 52, the language of Zech 14:4 portrays the arrival of the Elect One and the resultant “splitting of the mountain” by his feet. 1 Enoch 52:6 picks up the language of 1 En 1:1–9, which describes the theophany of God himself. Thus the Elect One of 1 En 52:6 arguably accomplishes 1 En 1:1–9’s theophany of the Lord. 1 Enoch 52’s interpretative move parallels Mark’s proposed use of Zech 14:5, as Mark 13 arguably depicts the theophany of the Son of Man accomplishing the theophany of “the Lord,” and it does so with reference to the same text – Zech 14:5.
1QM exhibits several themes from Zech 14. The notions of a “day of battle” against “all the nations,” in which the community receives the help of “the holy ones” or “holy angels,” arguably derive from Zech 14. The proposed use of Zech 14 in Mark 13 is comparable insofar as Jesus describes a militaristic attack on Jerusalem by an enemy, after which the elect receive help from the angels.
4Q176 quotes Zech 13:9 alongside lines from Isa 40–55, evidently attesting to the belief that the community was enduring affliction, but that God would eventually rescue them from it.
The Damascus Document quotes Zech 13:7 to refer to the eschatological judgment that would fall on those disobedient to the covenant. The “sword” of Zech 13:7 is God’s agent of vengeance, and just as it fell in the past, so it would fall in the future on those who disobey the covenant and afflict God’s people. Significantly, the covenanters interpret the “little ones” of Zech 13:7 by the phrase in Zech 11:7, “the afflicted of the flock.” Use of these passages from Zechariah indicates the community’s belief in a present and ongoing state of affliction. Such a use is comparable to Mark’s to the degree that he too
states that the Jesus-community will enter a time of affliction after, and as a result of, Jesus’ messianic death.61
Book 3 of the Sibylline Oracles alludes to Zech 13:8 to refer to the eschatological afflictions that will befall the whole world. The afflictions include international war, famines, and droughts. Such a use is consonant with Mark 13:7–8, which predicts similar events, I argue, on the basis of Mark’s use of Zech 13 at that juncture in the discourse.
Early Christian literature, including Matt 16:27, 25:31, and 1 Thess 3:13, alludes to Zech 14:5 to depict the angel-accompanied theophany of Jesus as “the Son of Man” or “Lord.” The early date of 1 Thessalonians suggests that appropriation of Zech 14:5 to Jesus’ parousia was traditional before the composition of Mark. These traditions do not prove that Mark uses Zech 14:5, but its plausibility is strengthened. Notably, in 1 Thessalonians the references to Dan 7:13 are somewhat diminished, and Jesus’ parousia is depicted almost exclusively in the language of Zech 14:5. This characteristic of
highlighting Zech 14:5 to the exclusion of the elements from Dan 7:13 is present in post-Gospel material, namely Didache,62 Apocalypse of Peter, Ascension of Isaiah, and Apocalypse of Elijah.63 Finally, Tg. Zech 13:9 interprets the fire as “affliction,” adding the latter word as an appositional phrase.
These allusions and quotations of Zech 13–14 throughout various Jewish and Christian writings do not require the proposed interpretation of their use in Mark. They do, however, establish a norm of usage that is consonant with this study’s proposal. Ultimately, the interpretation of Mark’s employment of any intertextual material depends on the context in which Mark embeds the allusion. Thus, it is to those contexts I now turn. In the next chapter I address Mark’s use of Zechariah throughout the Gospel in order to show that the influence of Zech 13–14 in Mark 13 is not sudden or out of place, but is rather one example of Mark’s patterned, consistent use of Zechariah.
61 See Sections 4.2.2 and 4.2.2.1.
62 I discuss Did 16 in Section 6.2.
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Chapter Three:
Allusions to Zechariah throughout Mark
3.1 Introduction
In Zech 9–14 a righteous and humble king rides into Jerusalem on a donkey, received by
rejoicing and shouting. This Davidic King restores Israel because of the blood of the covenant, and reigns over all the nations.1 In the restoration, the temple is free of the presence of traders,2 all the nations will worship the Lord in the temple,3 and the Kingdom of God will be established.4 Before the arrival of God’s Kingdom, however, the Shepherd-King of Israel is struck, and God’s people are scattered and tested.5 These passages from Zechariah have influenced the Gospels at a structural level, and the influence betrays itself repeatedly by bubbling up onto the surface of the Gospel narratives in the form of borrowed phrases and images. In short, the evangelists saw in the actions of Zechariah’s humble, Davidic, stricken, Shepherd-king, material which gave adequate expression to Jesus’ own teaching and action.
These passages have long been recognized as having influenced the Gospel narratives, and several studies have devoted attention specifically to the use of Zech 9–14 in the Passion Narratives.6 This chapter broadens the scope of many previous studies, and aims to demonstrate Mark’s use of Zechariah throughout his Gospel. Thus I limit the scope neither to Mark’s Passion Narrative nor to Zech 9–14; rather, I argue for occasional uses of material from all of Zechariah throughout the whole of the Gospel.7 This chapter does not seek to overturn the conclusions of the studies discussed in Section 1.5,8 but only to expand and add to their findings. Rather than proceeding in the order of the Markan narrative, I begin with the mostly accepted uses of Zech 9–14 in Mark 11–16 before turning to those outside of the Passion Narrative.
1 Zech 9:9–11. 2 Zech 14:21. 3 Zech 14:16. 4 Zech 14:9. 5 Zech 13:7–9.
6 See discussion in Section 1.5.
7 I reserve discussion of Mark 8:38, Mark 13 and Mark 14:27, to the subsequent two chapters.