Identificación del modelo de negocio

To get an impression of the degree to which the engagement in child labor is affected by factors at the household and context level, I have estimated variance components for empty models1 _{using Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) – estimation for the dif-}

ferent forms of child labor. In multilevel analyses, the variance is estimated at each specified level. This corresponds with – in case of a three level model – three variance components. To determine the variance that can be attributed by factors at the different levels, the intraclass correlations rho (ρ), or variance Partition Coefficients (vPC) (Sni- jders & Bosker, 1999; Goldstein, 2011) are computed. The intra-class correlation can be

considered as the proportion of the overall variation in hours worked attributable to, for example, districts. The analyses are estimated with MlwiN (Rasbash et al., 2005). In Table 4.4, I present the percentages that can be attributed to the household and the context2 _{level. To make a clear division between the household and the context in}

this table, the context level values represent the total variance that cannot be attributed to the household level. Generally speaking, the estimates make clear that most (60–99 percent) of the variation in child labor can be attributed to household factors. however, the differences illustrate that some types of work may be better explained by factors close to home and while others are more influenced by factors further away.

In line with the general finding, household level variables also seem to determine the involvement in commercial work (95 percent in Asia and 90 percent in Africa). In Asia, context factors are slightly more important in urban areas, possibly reflecting a higher demand for commercial child labor. In Africa, commercial work is somewhat more influenced by demand side factors or (infra)structural factors at the context level.

For housework in Asia, around 70 to 80 percent of the variation can be ascribed to factors at the household level. The involvement in housework of rural girls in Asia and Africa is relatively less attributable to factors at the household level compared to other areas, suggesting that context factors, such as patriarchy and traditionality or a lack of school facilities may drive these rural girls into housework.

The patterns for family business work resemble those for housework. In Asia, there is much variation, with variances at the household level ranging from 69 to 92 per- cent. Moreover, the involvement of girls is, to a large extent, attributed to factors at the context level. In Africa, the context in rural areas seems to determine family business slightly more than in urban areas. This finding possibly illustrates the importance of the educational infrastructure and dominant cultura l patterns in rural areas.

The involvement in unpaid work in Asia is mainly determined by factors at the house- hold level. In Africa, unpaid work is relatively more determined by context level factors. This could indicate that African children mostly perform unpaid work in their direct sur- roundings.

4.6 ConClUsion

In this chapter, I have made an overview of the work activities of children in Asia and Africa. In this way, I could get a detailed picture of the child labor problem. That work- ing may be problematic is best described by the number of children engaged in each of the four types of child labor. The average workload in some types of child labor is so high that it is not unlikely that it might negatively affect children's health or educational outcomes. For example, the engagement of children in paid labor may not be very high compared to the other forms, but in some countries, children spend as much as 40 hours on paid labor, which is a relatively high workload. Roughly speaking, these long workweeks occur in countries with a small share of working children, such as in Bang-

ladesh, vietnam and Somalia. In Asia, children living in urban areas work more hours in commercial child labor compared to working children in rural areas.

In addition, the statistics in this chapter suggest that for a clear understanding of the child labor problem, we should also look at the engagement of children in unpaid labor, such as housework, family business work and unpaid work for others. Work in the household is not necessarily bad for children; it is only natural that a child is expected

household Context

Commercial work Asia Total 95 5

Rural Girls 95 5 Rural Boys 95 5 Urban Girls 93 7 Urban Boys 91 9 Africa Total 90 10 Rural Girls 87 13 Rural Boys 89 11 Urban Girls 97 3 Urban Boys 96 4

housework Asia Total 78 22

Rural Girls 67 33 Rural Boys 79 21 Urban Girls 72 28 Urban Boys 82 18 Africa Total 70 30 Rural Girls 65 35 Rural Boys 67 33 Urban Girls 72 28 Urban Boys 70 30 household Context

Family Business work Asia Total 86 14

Rural Girls 69 31 Rural Boys 84 16 Urban Girls 86 14 Urban Boys 92 8 Africa Total 64 36 Rural Girls 62 38 Rural Boys 60 40 Urban Girls 78 22 Urban Boys 77 23

to help with the household chores. It becomes a problem when children are kept out of school to work in the household or family business. It could also be harmful when children are too tired in school or cannot do their homework. The descriptive analyses in this chapter show that girls spend more time on housework than boys and they are somewhat less engaged in family business work. Adding up the hours, girls spend rela- tively more time on hidden household labor than boys. In Africa, girls are also relatively more engaged in unpaid labor outside their household. All in all, these data show that neglecting the engagement of girls in unpaid activities may lead to an underestimation of the child labor problem.

To give an indication of whether the engagement in child labor is influenced by factors at the household or context level, variance components of multilevel models without explanatory variables were presented. These models made clear that child labor can for the largest part be attributed to factors close to the home. In Africa, however, the engagement in child labor can be more explained by community factors than in Asia. In the following chapters, I will describe which factors at the household and the context level explain the engagement in all types of child labor.

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