Imágenes arquetípicas en Extensiones de Biodanza

distribution of SRHR responsibilities between South African men and women, including decisions about contraception. Although there is much literature calling for the need for male programmes to be put in place in South Africa, there is little in the way of policies or programmes that have specific guidelines for male SRHR services.” Hence it is very important that men and the Amadodana are included in SRH programmes which will be life affirming for them.

3.5 Factors contributing to men’s lack of sexual and reproductive health rights

There are many factors contributing to men’s lack of SRH rights resulting in their poor health status. However, the study was limited to the following factors, namely, gender inequality, patriarchy, culture and church teachings and colonialism. A discussion of gender inequality follows.

3.5.1 Gender inequality

“Gender is a primary marker of social and economic stratification and, as a result, of exclusion. Regardless of one’s socio-economic class, there are systematic gender differences in material well-being, although the degree of inequality varies across countries and over time. As a result, gender inequality is a characteristic of most societies, with males on average better positioned in social, economic, and political hierarchies” (UNDP 2010). In our South African context, the country’s “definition of, and goals towards, achieving gender equality are guided by a vision of human rights which incorporates acceptance of the equal and unchallengeable rights of all women and men. This ideal is a fundamental tenet in the Bill of Rights of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996)”. It emerged from a long period of struggle for a democratic society that respects and promotes the rights of all its citizens irrespective of race, gender, class, age, disability, etc. (Bill of Rights, Sections 9.1 to 9.4). In most personal relationships in South Africa, men have more power. This is because of the historical inherited legacy of patriarchy that influenced essential informal and formal human relationships with a marked impact at the workplace.

“The Gender Policy Framework establishes guidelines for South Africa as a nation to take action to remedy the historical legacy of patriarchy by defining new terms of reference for

interacting with each other in both the private and public spheres, and by proposing and recommending an institutional framework that facilitates equal access to goods and services for both women and men” (Kornegay, 2000:1). A report by PPS (a financial services company) noted that, according to insurance claim statistics, “early mortality and morbidity rates among South African men are higher when compared to women” (PPS, 2015). The report went on to state that Lifestyle issues such as obesity, lack of exercise, poor diet and long working hours are some of the most critical elements in the development of non-communicable diseases among men which contributes to earlier mortality and morbidity rates.

The social constructions of manhood have strong effects on men’s and women’s health. “They affect women directly, for example, via male violence against them, causing physical and psychological harm, and indirectly through men’s risky behaviour increasing their female partner’s vulnerability to sexually transmitted diseases. The social constructions also affect men, for whom expectations of risk-taking and taboos around health-seeking heighten exposure to injury and illness” (Peacock et al, 2008:1).

Writers argue that gender roles are not set in stone (unchanging). However, there is evidence from South Africa and other countries that efforts to increase gender equality can have significant effects on health by promoting more gender-equitable attitudes and that there is a possibility of transformation of gender stereotypes. “Involving men in such programmes is now seen as vital to success, as recognised in several key international agreements” (Peacock et al, 2008:2). In addition, Peacock (2008) believes that “there are also negative health consequences for men. Men in many societies adhere to rigid notions of manhood and equate manhood with risk-taking, dominance and sexual conquest; they view health-seeking behaviours, moreover, as a sign of weakness” According to Noar and Morokoff (2001) “These attitudes put men at risk from both natural and non-natural causes.” Gender norms of masculinity are also implicated in men’s reluctance to seek medical care both private and public. Certain groups of men may find it particularly hard to access health services, and especially SRH services. “Men from poor communities that are underserved by clinical health services often lack the means to pay for transport to clinics and hospitals” (Nzioka, 2002).

The Amadodana might be affected by these economic issues, including not being able to access the clinics because gender stereotyping has affected men’s access to relevant information and research on reproductive health. “In general, since reproduction has been viewed as a woman’s

domain, male reproductive health related to occupational exposures has been neglected” (Wang, 2000). Men are always seen as a problem of gender inequality, not the solution. They have been perceived as a homogenous, powerful, and unchangeable group, but international institutions and policy-makers nowadays are recognising the way men are shaped by gender norms in society and the fact that men can also contribute to gender equality. Gender equality advocates have, over time, ignored and excluded men. They may need to give men a chance because the focus has been on women and equality which has disregarded men in the process. Given this focus on women, it is perhaps not surprising that the Amadodana members find it very difficult to go to healthcare centres. “Gender equality advocates have to bring both parties on board in order to solve the problem. One also has to bear in mind that in patriarchal societies promoting gender equality is impossible without the consent, mindset and involvement of the male population” (Van Den Berg, 2015:14).