2.2. The importance of the image
2.3.1. The image in the 20 th century
Much more research is needed before there will be a thorough understanding of the relationship be
tween chewing nutrition and the performance of a muscle when tested manually. One of the major prob
lems in designing a research study is the number of factors that influence the manual muscle test, such as the cranial-sacral primary respiratory system, reflexes, subluxations, and many others. As GoodhearP9 points out, " . . . the nutritional factor is only one component of the composite whole of the particular problem posed by the particular patient." The study by Leaf,l08 previ
ously discussed, dramatically shows that there is no one nutritional factor that correlates with a specific muscle;
the patient's general health level influences the num
ber and kind of nutrition that will change muscle func
tion. Each individual or group who has done a study is to be congratulated. There have been negative and positive studies indicating that chewing nutrition has an effect on the manual muscle test. From each study something has been learned, ranging from the value of the AK procedures to how to design improved stud
ies.
Rybeck and Swenson 150 evaluated the effect of chewing sugar on the latissimus dorsi muscle, which is associated with the pancreas in applied kinesiology. The population of the study was seventy-three healthy stu
dents who were unfamiliar with applied kinesiology. In random questioning, as many believed that sugar might increase strength as decrease it; most had no opinion.
The subjects were first evaluated for a normally func
tioning latissimus dorsi with manual muscle testing. Only those judged to have solid muscle function were used in the study. Two types of muscle tests were performed:
1 ) the standard manual muscle t�st used in applied kinesiology, and 2) one against a force transducer.86 The tester was blind as to whether the subject received a sugar cube or nothing as a control. The hypothesis being tested was whether sugar in the mouth would cause the latissimus dorsi to weaken. The results were insignifi
cant for the mechanical test. For the manual muscle test there was a significant difference between the con
trol and experimental groups. The Wilcoxin Rank Sum Test showed the experimental group to be significantly different from the controlled one (p=O.0062) .
There are two interesting factors about this study.
First, it is not expected that everyone will weaken when sugar is placed in the mouth. As noted previously, de
pending on the physiologic needs of the body at the time of the test, it is expected that some individuals will strengthen when sugar is placed in the mouth. On a clinical basis it is observed that individuals who have sugar-handling stress more frequently weaken when sugar is placed in the mouth than does the random population. The significantly positive outcome of this study may relate with the population study of students under stress. The second interesting factor is the differ
ence between the manual muscle test results and the muscle test results against a mechanical transducer. The
failure to correlate with the manual muscle test is sup
ported by Blaich's16 and Blaich and Mendenhall's17 studies in comparing the manual muscle test with Cybex II testing.
SCOpp157 evaluated the nutrition-muscle associa
tion described in applied kinesiology by giving individu
als with unilaterally weak muscles either a placebo or the indicated nutrient. Muscle strength was measured by a JayMar dynamometer, with a 2 1 % gain in strength for the nutrient group. This was statistically significant (p < .05) as compared with the placebo group. The placebo group showed a small non-significant pre/post decrease in muscle strength. The muscles were tested according to methods described by Kendall and Kendall. 103
In a double-blind study, Sandweiss151 tested the pectoralis major (sternal division) muscle on twenty-nine individuals with a normal manual muscle test in the clear, and another group of twenty-six individuals with a pectoralis major (sternal division) muscle that was weak in the clear. The individuals were tested with vi
tamin A and a placebo. The placebo was manufactured by the same company as the vitamin, so that the taste and appearance of the tablets would be similar. The tablets were administered so that neither the subject nor tester knew which was being tested. The tablet tested first was on a random basis. The placebo effect was definitely operative in this test; however, vitamin A outperformed the placebo in strengthening the pecto
ralis major (sternal division) by six to one. An interest
ing aspect of the study is that the placebo effect was more operative when the placebo was the first tablet tested.
It is difficult to design an effective study to evalu
ate applied kinesiology nutritional testing. Foremost, the designer must be familiar with all aspects of applied kinesiology. A major effort is required to eliminate as many variables as possible. A study by Friedman and WeisbergSO is an example of a poorly designed study that does not adhere to proper muscle testing principles.
Possibly the most important factor in obtaining accu
rate test results is the examiner's knowledge of ways the subject may change the test parameters to appear strong in the presence of weakness. Subjects will often shift body position, change direction of force, and oth
erwise modify the test to recruit synergistic muscles.
These factors must be observed by the examiner so they can be placed into the equation that finally evaluates whether there is muscle strength or weakness on manual muscle testing. The study by Friedman and Weisberg was designed to evaluate dental vertical dimension, Golgi tendon organ manipulation, and the effect of chewing sugar. In order to make the examiner blind, the subject was placed behind a screen with his arm
held out so that the examiner on the other side of the screen could contact the subject's wrist for an arm pull
down type of test. This gives the examiner no ability to control the patient's body shift when he makes an ef
fort to recruit synergistic muscles or otherwise change the test parameters.
A study by Kenney et al. 104 purports to investigate applied kinesiology testing of nutritional supplementa
tion but studies nothing that the ICAK supports or teaches. In addition the study is poorly designed. Nu
tritional "deficiencies" were evaluated with "Ridler"
points or by the use of acupuncture meridians. Ridler points are an arbitrarily designated set of body surface points of unknown value whose use has nothing to do with applied kinesiology. While some aspects of merid
ian therapy are used in applied kinesiology, they are not used to determine nutritional needs. The diagnos
tic method used in this study bears no relation to any
thing supported by the ICAK or in the literature of diplomates of ICAK. This in itself places the study out
side of the realm of applied kinesiology. Thorough ex
amination, considering all the alternatives, is necessary to arrive at a final conclusion and diagnosis. This is the main reason that applied kinesiology seminars taught by diplomates of the organization are limited to those licensed to be primary health care professionals. This study was done using two lay persons and a chiroprac
tor whose education in applied kinesiology was not identified. The study implies that the " . . . chiropractor and two lay-persons . . . are recognized and experienced in applied kinesiology techniques." They are not rec
ognized by the ICAK because two participants are lay people, and they used techniques not recognized by the ICAK. The lack of qualification of these practitioners and the fact that what they were doing was not applied kinesiology makes their findings essentially irrelevant.
A study by Triano17o found that there is no one
to-one association between certain muscle weakness and a specific nutrient that always strengthens the muscle. Research on AK nutritional testing requires a much more complex design. There are many factors
Continued research is necessary to put in perspec
tive the applied kinesiology evaluation of nutritional effects on body function. It is important to reiterate that the results from AK testing must be correlated with all other standard procedures for determining the patient's needs for nutritional supplementation. AK testing adds a functional dimension to the final prescription.
CHAPTER 4 -REFERENCES
4. Altman, G.E., & J.E.E Riseman, "Sublingual erythrol tetranitrate in the treatment of angina pectoris. Effect of varying the dose and rate of administration," Am J Med Sci, Vol 240 (JuI 1960).
5. Ambrus, J.L., H.B. Lassman, & J.J. De Marchi, ''Absorption of exogenous and endogenous proteolytic enzymes," Clin Pharmacal Thera, Vol 8, No 3 ( 1966).
6. Appledorf, H., & S.R Tannenbaum, "Specific hunger for thia
mine in the rat: Selection of low concentrations of thiamine in solution," J Nutr, Vol 92 ( 1967).
7. Asimov, I., The Human Brain - Its Capacities and Fundions (New York: New American Library, 1963).
8. Babich, ER et aI., "Behavioral modifications in naive rats pro
duced by injections of ribonucleic acid extracted from trained rats," Worm Runner's Digest ( 1965). (Medford, QR: Harman Press, 1977).
12. Barton, J., & M. Barton, Which Vitamin? Nutritional Care through Muscle Testing (E. Longmeadow, MA: Celecom Corporation,
1979).
13. Behrman, H.R, & M.R Kare, "Canine pancreatic secretion in response to acceptable and aversive taste stimuli," Proc Soc Exp Bioi Med, Vol 129 ( 1 968).
14. Bell, ER, & RL. Kitchell, ''Taste reception in the goat, sheep and calf," J Physiol, Vol 183 ( 1966).
15. Bellows, RT., "Time factors in water drinking in dogs," Am J Physiol, Vol 128 ( 1938).
16. Blaich, RM., "Manual and machine muscle testing before and after correction of 'respiratory faults, ", in Seleded Papers of the International College of Applied Kinesiology, ed B.C. Markham (DetrOit, MI: ICAK, 1981).
17. Blaich, RM., & E.1. Mendenhall, "Manual muscle testing and Cybex machine muscle testing, a search for a correlation," in 1 984 Seleded Papers of the International College of Applied Kinesiology, ed WH. Schmitt, Jr. (Park City, UT: ICAK, 1984).
18. Borer, K., "Disappearance of preferences and aversions for sapid solutions in rats ingesting untasted fluids," J Comp Physiol Psychol, Vol 65, No 2 ( 1968).
19. Bornstein, W.S., "Cortical representation of taste in man and monkey," Yale J Bioi Med, Vol 13 ( 1 940).
20. Bott, E., DA Denton, & S. Weller, "The innate appetite for salt exhibited by sodium-deficient sheep," in Qlfadion and Taste II, ed T. Hayashi (New York: Pergamon Press, 1967).
21. Boyd, J.D., in discussion of article by C. Sweet, "Voluntary food habits of normal children," JAMA, Vol 107, No 10 (Sep 5, 1936).
22. Bradley, RM., & C.M. Mistretta, "Investigations of taste function and swallowing in fetal sheep," in Qral Sensation and Perception -Development in the Fetus and Infant, ed J.E Bosma (Bethesda, MD: U.S. DHEW, 1973).
23. Brimhall, J.W, "Inhalation therapy." Proceedings of Summer Meeting, ICAK, Detroit, 1979.
24. Burns, D., ''Accumulating scientific evidence supports glandular therapy," Chiro Econ, Vol 30, No 3 (Nov/Dec 1987).
25. Chancellor, P.M., ed, Handbook of the Bach Flower Remedies (London: The C.w. Daniel Co Ltd, 1971 ).
26. Christensson, B. et a1., "Haemodynamic effects of nitroglycerin in normal subjects during supine and sitting exercise," Br Heart J, Vol 31 ( 1 969).
27. Cornwell, P., & G. Cornwell, "The effects of vibration as the UCS in the conditioning of planaria," Worm Runner's Digest, Vol 1 ( 1 959).
28. Davis, C.M., "Self selection of diet by newly weaned infants -an experimental study," Am J Dis Child, Vol 36, No 4 (Qct 1928).
29. Davis, C.M., "Studies in the self-selection of diet by young chil
dren," JADA, Vol 21 (Apr 1934).
30. Davis, C.M., "Results of the self-selection of diets by young chil
dren," Can Med Assoc J, Vol 41 (Sep 1939).
31. De Deuxchaisnes, C. et aI., "New modes of administration of salmon calcitonin in Paget's disease," Clin Qrthop, No 2 1 7 (Apr 1987).
32. Denton, D.A, "Evolutionary aspects of the emergence of aldos
terone secretion and salt appetite," Physiol Rev, Vol 45 ( 1 965).
33. Denton, DA, "Salt appetite," in Handbook of Physiology, Sec 6: Alimentary Canal. Vol l. Control of Food and Water Intake, ed C.E Code (Washington, DC: American Physiol Soc, 1967).
34. Dolgoff, E.J., "A holographic brain model," in Holography in Medicine - Proceedings of the International Symposium on Holography, New York, 1973, ed P. Greguss (Surrey, England:
IPC Business Press Ltd, 1975).
35. Epstein, A.N., "Qropharyngeal factors in feeding and drinking,"
in Handbook of Physiology, Sec 6: Alimentary Canal. Vol I. Con
trol of Food and Water Intake, ed C.E Code, (Washington, DC:
American Physiol Soc, 1967).
36. Epstein, AN., "Feeding without pharyngeal sensations," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & Q. Maller (Bal
timore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
37. Erdie, H. et aI., "Absorption and excretion of g-strophanthin af
ter intravenous or sublingual adminstration," Deutch Med Wochenschc, Vol 104, No 27 ( 1 979).
38. Erickson, RP., "Sensory neural patterns and gustation," in 0.1-faction and Taste - Proceedings of the First International Sym
posium, Stockholm, Sep 1962, ed V Zotterman (New York: The Macmillan Co, 1963).
39. Erickson, RP., "Neural coding of taste quality," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & Q. Maller ( Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
40. Faden, AI., "Qpiate antagonists and thyrotropin-releasing hor
mone. I. Potential role in the treatment of shock," JAMA, Vol 252, No 9 (Sep 7, 1984).
41. Faden, AI., "Qpiate antagonists and thyrotropin-releasing hor
mone. II. Potential role in the treatment of central nervous sys
tem injury," JAMA, Vol 252, No 1 1 (Sep 2 1 , 1984).
42. Fallen, E. et aI., "Relief of coronary artery spasm by nitroglyc
erin: Time-dependent variability in drug action," Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn, Vol 4, No 3 ( 1 978).
43. Fiet, J. et aI., "Post-menopausal concentrations of plasma oestra
diol, oestrone, FSH and LH and of total urinary oestradiol and oestrone after a single sublingual dose of oestradiol 1 7B," Ada Endocrinol, Vol 101 (Sep 1982).
44. Fischman, W, & M. Grinims, MRT (New York: Richard Marek Publishers, 1979).
45. Fishman, I.V, "Single fiber gustatory impulses in rat and ham
ster," J Cell Comp Physiol, Vol 49 ( 1 957).
46. Fregly, M.J., "Specificity of the sodium chloride appetite of adrenal
ectomized rats; substitution of lithium chloride for sodium chlo
ride," Am J Physiol, Vol 195, No 3 (Dec 1958).
47. Fregly, M.J., "NaCI appetite of adrenalectomized rats," Soc Exper Bioi Med, Vol 97 ( 1958).
48. Fregly, M.J., "Specificity of sodium chloride aversion of hyper
tensive rats," Am J Physiol, Vol 196, No 6 ( 1 959).
49. Fregly, M.J., ''The role of hormones in the regulation of salt in
take in rats," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & 0. Maller ( Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
50. Friedman, M.H., & J. Weisberg, "Applied kinesiology - double
blind pilot study," J Prosthet Dent, Vol 45, No 3 (Mar 1981).
51. Friel, J.P, ed, Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 25th ed (Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Co, 1974).
52. Gale, GD., S. Gallon, & W R Porter, "Sublingual Lorazepam: A better premedication?" Br J Anesthesiol, Vol 55, No 8 ( 1 983).
53. Gardner, M.L.G., "Intestinal assimilation of intact peptides and proteins from the diet - a neglected field?" Bioi Rev, Vol 59 ( 1984).
54. Gibaldi, M., & J.L. Kanig, "Absorption of drugs through the oral mucosa," J o.ral Ther Pharmacol, Vol 1, No 4 (Jan 1965).
55. Gold, pw. et aI., "Pituitary thyrotropin response to thyrotropin
releasing hormone in affective illness: Relationship to spinal fluid amino metabolites," Am J Psych, Vol 134, No 9 (Sep 1977).
56. Goldstein, AL. et aI., "Current status of thymosin and other hor
mones of the thymus gland," Recent Progress Hormone Res, Vol 37 ( 1981 ) .
5 7 . Goodheart, G.J., Jr., 20567 Mack Avenue, Grosse Pointe Woods, MI 48236. Personal communication.
58. Goodheart, G.J., Jr., The Cranial Sacral and Nutritional Reflexes and Their Relationship to Muscle Balancing (Detroit: privately published, 1968).
59. Goodheart, G.J., Jr., "Structural imbalance and nutritional ab
sorption (a new route to the brain)," Chiro Econ, Vol 13, No 3 (Nov/Dec 1970).
60. Goodheart, G.J., Jr., ''The RNA meridian relationship to ap
plied kinesiology," Chiro Econ, Vol 15, No 5 (Mar/Apr 1973).
6 1 . Goodheart, G.J., Jr., Applied Kinesiology 1 979 Workshop Pro
cedure Manual, 15th ed (Detroit: privately published, 1979).
62. Goodheart, G.J., Jr., Applied Kinesiology 1 987 Workshop Pro
cedure Manual (Detroit: privately published, 1987).
63. Grossman, S.P, "The central regulation of food and water in
take," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & o..
Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
64. Guyton, A.C., & J.E. Hall, Textbook of Medical Physiology, 9th ed (Philadelphia: WB. Saunders Co, 1996).
65. Haigler, ED., Jr. , et al., "Response to orally administered syn
thetic thyrotropin-releasing hormone in man," J Clin Endocrinol Metabol, Vol 35 (Nov 1972).
66. Halpern, B.P, "Some relationships between electrophysiology and behavior in taste," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & o.. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
67. Harper, AE., "Dietary protein and amino acids in food intake regulation," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare
& 0. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967 ) . 68. Harriman, AE., "The effect of a preoperative preference for sugar
over salt upon compensatory salt selection by adrenalectomized rats," J Nutr, Vol 57 (o.ct 1955).
69. Harriman, AE., & M.R Kare, "Preference for sodium chloride over lithium chloride by adrenalectomized rats," Am J Physiol, Vol 207 (o.ct 1964).
70. Harriman, AE., D.M. Nance, & J.S. Milner, "Discrimination between equimolar NaCI and LiCI solutions by anosmic, adrenal
ectomized rats," Physiol Behav, Vol 3 ( 1 968).
7 1 . Harris, L.J. et ai, "Appetite and choice of diet. The ability of the vitamin B deficient rat to discriminate between diets containing and lacking the vitamin," Proc Roy Soc Lond, Series B, Vol 1 13 ( 1 933)
72. Harrower, H.R, Practical o.rganotherapy - The Internal Secre
tions in General Practice, 3rd ed (Glendale, CA: The Harrower Laboratory, 1922 ) .
73. Harrower, H . R , A n Endocrine Handbook (Glendale, CA: The Harrower Laboratory, 1939).
74. Hartry, A.L. , P. Keith-Lee, & W.O. Morton, "Planaria: Memory transfer through cannibalism reexamined," Science, Vol 146 (o.ct 1964).
75. Hemmings, WA, & E.W Williams, "Transport of large break
down products of dietary protein through the gut wall," Gut, Vol 19 ( 1978).
76. Henderson, D.J., "Significance of vertebral dyskinesia in rela
tion to the cervical syndrome," J Manip Physiol Ther, Vol 2, No 1 (Mar 1979).
77. Henkin, RI., J.R Gill, Jr., & F.c. Bartter, "Studies on taste thresh
olds in normal man and in patients with adrenal cortical insuffi
ciency: The role of adrenal cortical steroids," J Clin Invest, Vol 42, No 5 ( 1 963).
78. Henkin, Rl., "Abnormalities of taste and olfaction in various dis
ease states," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & 0. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
79. Henkin, Rl., comment in chapter on "Specific appetite" by o..
Maller, in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare &
o.. Maller ( Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967).
80. Henkin, Rl., comment in chapter on "The interrelations of the chemical senses" by D.G. Moulton, in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & o.. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967 ) .
8 1 . Hoeschen, R J . e t aI., "Haemodynamic effects o f angina pecto
ris, and of nitroglycerin in normal and anginal subjects," Br Heart J, Vol 28 ( 1 966).
82. Holaday, JW., & EW. Bernton, "Protirelin (TRH) - a potent neuromodulator with therapeutic potential," Arch Intern Med, Vol 144 (Jun 1984).
83. Hollander, E, HA Sober, & J. Bandes, ''A study of hunger and appetite in a young man with esophageal obstruction and jejun
ostomy," Ann NY Acad Sci, Vol 63 ( 1955).
84. Hommel, H. et aI., "The mechanism of insulin secretion after oral glucose administration," Diabetologia, Vol 8 (Apr 1972).
85. Hoshisima, K, "Endocrines and taste," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & o.. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967 ) .
86. Human Performance Recorder, produced b y Human Perfor
mance Systems, po.. Drawer 1324, Fayetteville, AR 72701.
87. Inglett, G.E. et aI., "Taste-modifying properties of miracle fruit (Synsepalum dulcificum)," J Agr Food Chem, Vol 13, No 3 (May/
Jun 1965).
88. International College of Applied Kinesiology, "Applied Kinesiol
ogy - Adopted Status Statement of the ICAK," Chiro Econ, Vol 26, No 3 (Nov/Dec 1983).
89. International College of Applied Kinesiology, "Status Statement
International College of Applied Kinesiology," Am Chiro (Jan!
Feb 1984)
90. Jacobs, H.L., "Taste and the role of experience in the regulation of food intake," in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition, ed M.R Kare & o.. Maller (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1967 ) . 9 1 . Jacobs, H . L . , & K N . Sharma, "Taste versus calories: Sensory
and metabolic signals in control of food intake," Ann NY Acad Sci, Vol 157 ( 1 969) .
92. Jamieson, T. K , & D . Duffy, A Manual for Metabolic/Nutritional Evaluation of the SMA/25, CBC w/DifJerential and Related Tests ( Cannonsburg, Ml: Balancing Body Chemistry with Nutrition, 1984).
93. Janowitz, H., & M.l. Grossman, "Effect of parenteral administra
tion of glucose and protein hydrolysate on food intake in the rat," Am J Physiol, Vol 155 (o.ct 1948).
94. Janowitz, H.D., M.E. Hanson, & M.l. Grossman, "Effect of intra
venously administered glucose on food intake in the dog," Am J Physiol, Vol 156 (Jan 1949).
95. Janowitz, HD., & M.l. Grossman, "Some factors affecting the food intake of normal dogs and dogs with esophagostomy and gastric fistula," Am J Physiol, Vol 159 (o.ct 1949).
96. Janowitz, HD., & E Hollander, "The time factor in the adjust
ment of food intake to varied caloric requirement in the dog: A study of precision of appetite regulation," Ann NY Acad Sci ( 1 968)
97. Jansen, E., & H. Klepzig, "Studies on the influence of Molsidomin on coronary heart disease," Med Klin, Vol 7 1 , No 47 ( 1979).
98. Kakolewski, J.W, Vc. Cox, & E.S. Valenstein, "Short-latency antidiuresis following the initiation of food ingestion," SCience,
98. Kakolewski, J.W, Vc. Cox, & E.S. Valenstein, "Short-latency antidiuresis following the initiation of food ingestion," SCience,