Impactos por Parámetro Ambiental

research providing insight into the socio-economic status (i.e., education, employment, and marital status) of convicted male dWI offenders has repeatedly established that these offenders often have less education, are unemployed, and are more often single (i.e., divorced or separated) (Simpson et al. 1991; Simpson et al. 1996; Jones and Lacey 2001; Simpson et al. 2004). research also suggests that female drunk drivers often share these characteristics, although findings in the literature are more mixed; some studies report lower levels of education and employment among female dWI offenders compared to males whereas other studies suggest comparable or higher levels in relation to both of these factors. ultimately, this suggests that more research into this issue is needed. In contrast, research that compares the extent to which male and female offenders are divorced, separated, or single is more consistent, revealing that females are more likely than male dWI offenders to possess these characteristics. Available research about socio-economic status of female dWI offenders is briefly discussed in more detail below.

Some studies from the 1980s and 1990s suggest that for both male and female dWI offenders there is little difference between their levels of education (Chalmers et al. 1993). For example, findings reveal that, when comparing first offenders participating in an alcohol education program with second offenders participating in a 14-day residential treatment program and multiple offenders who are incarcerated, the level of education across these sub-groups decreases in a parallel fashion as offenders move from less serious to more serious interventions (Argeriou et al. 1986).

Earlier research also suggests that when female dWI offenders are employed a majority of them work in “pink-collar” occupations as waitresses or housekeepers (Shore and McCoy 1987). Other research suggests that almost 30% of female dWI offenders are homemakers, compared to less than 2% of males (Chalmers et al. 1993).

Conversely, a study of 274 women and 3,151 men convicted of drunk driving offenses and ordered to attend a safety action program in Mississippi between 1976 and 1979 revealed that female offenders had higher levels of education and were older compared to men (Wells-Parker et al. 1991). Similarly, a study of a drinking driver Program (ddP) in new York in 1992 reported that, of 800 female dWI offenders aged 18-77, the majority (almost 70%) were employed full-time and had at least some college education (Parks et al. 1996). Conversely, a few years later, Chang et al. (1996) reported lower rates of employment for female dWI offenders compared to males. A 2008 study of 729 repeat dWI offenders (male and female) participating in a residential education and treatment facility in Massachusetts reported that female dWI offenders had more education than males, however their level of income was lower (Laplante et al. 2008). Additionally, a comprehensive review of drunk driving studies comparing males and females concluded that “Educational underachievement is part of the pattern of risk for drunk driving for both young men and young women” (McMurran et al. 2011, p.918). Further investigation into levels of education and employment is needed for two reasons. First, the level of education among female offenders has direct implications for the tailoring of drunk driving program content to meet the reading and comprehension skills of these offenders. Second, and perhaps more importantly, the cost of these programs will affect offenders’ ability and willingness to pay program costs which ultimately will influence their participation levels.

research into the marital status of female drunk drivers has produced more consistency, showing that female drunk drivers, when compared to male drunk drivers, are even more likely to be divorced or single (McMurran et al. 2011; Chang et al. 1996; Shore and McCoy 1987; Argeriou et al. 1986). To illustrate, a 1986 study by Argeriou reported that “When age is held constant, women offenders within sub-groups8 _{continue to exhibit higher}

rates of divorce/separation than their male counterparts” (p.131). These findings suggest that the risk of a drunk driving arrest among divorced or separated women is more pronounced.

A study of a drinking driver Program in new York in 1992 that involved 800 female drunk driving offenders aged 18-77 reported that 44% of women had never been married. It further noted that women who were not yet diagnosed (re. alcohol issues) were more often married (64%) than those in the abuse group (52%) or dependent group (55%) (Parks et al. 1996). A study involving 192 male and 49 female participants in a state-approved first offender dWI education program in California in 1993 also revealed that almost 41% of women were divorced or separated compared to less than 18% of men (Chalmers et al. 1993). In 2000, a study by Lapham et al. reported that female dWI offenders, when compared to male dWI offenders, were less likely to be married, to have prior dWI convictions, or to be referred for treatment.

It has been suggested that the divorce rate being higher among female dWI offenders than males may be indicative of the fact that relationship failure may have had a stronger impact on the drinking behavior of females compared to males. This can be linked to the fact that females tend to have an internalized response to stress, such as alcohol or drug use, which can increase their risk of other dangerous behavior such as drunk driving. McMurran et al. (2011) concluded that women can be distressed by their marital situation and turn to alcohol as a coping mechanism. However, it should be noted that women who did have a partner were most likely to be living with someone who had an alcohol problem (McMurran et al. 2011).

8 note that the subgroups in this study included those first offenders that participated in a driver Alcohol Education, second offenders who participated in a 14-day residential program, and both second and multiple offenders who were incarcerated.

The fact that a significant proportion of females are single, divorced or separated, or more likely to be living with a partner with an alcohol problem is a source of concern. These factors can impede the ability of females to seek treatment as a result of limited financial means and a lack of support associated with childcare as women are most often the primary caregiver with custody of children (Greenfield 2002).