In addition to the interaction of the engagement factors there are a range of factors that may act as antecedents on the dimensions of engagement (capabilities and outcomes). Chapter 3 provided the context of Higher Education for this thesis and identified that both a supporting environment in which to work and specific job characteristics can lead to positive outcomes (see section 3.3), including increased commitment, satisfaction and motivation in academic samples (Lacy & Sheehan 1997; Winter & Sarros 2002; Winter et al. 2000). These can be considered antecedents to engagement.
The right conditions in the knowledge economy can stimulate employees’ investment of themselves into the organisation (Kelloway & Barling 2000). In the conceptual model of engagement developed here, it is envisaged that a supportive environment and job characteristics will play an important antecedent role, especially since engagement research has identified these aspects as key dimensions impacting engagement (Macey & Schneider 2008; Saks 2006).
Building on the framework presented in Figure 4-2, the antecedent relationship along with propositions is reflected in Figure 4-4. This section will explore the organisational characteristics and draw on the propositions regarding their impact on and association with the individual engagement capabilities and outcomes.
4.1.2.1.
Supportive Organisational Environment
Having a supportive organisation is thought to be an instrumental antecedent to developing the engagement of academics. In the literature on academics, as outlined in Chapter 3 (section 3.3.1), academics at their various levels of classification vary according to their perceptions of support (Winter and Sarros 2002). Organisational support theory predicts a social and economic exchange and a personification of the organisation through the actions of those within the organisation, such as managers to which employees respond (Eisenberger et al. 1986). The phenomenon is often measured with the scale of perceived organisational support, which is classified as the commitment of the organisation to the employee (Eisenberger, Fasolo & Davis- LaMastro 1990). In the Higher Education environment, academics have identified support (or rather the lack of it) as a significant problem (Martin 1999). Winter and Sarros (2002) found that many academics believed that there was a lack of support, loyalty and commitment to them from their university. Treating academics as unique with strategic value (Lepak & Snell 1999, 2007) would enhance the perception of support from their university.
In many studies a supportive environment has been captured as a significant antecedent to many other major constructs of work behaviour (Hutchison 1997; McFarlane Shore & Wayne 1993; O'Driscoll & Randell 1999; Rhoades Shanock & Eisenberger 2006). Because organisational support theory operates through social exchange, some studies have specifically examined the reciprocal relationship that perceived organisational support has with affective commitment (McFarlane Shore & Wayne 1993). From these studies it can be concluded that organisational support theory has a significant impact on the various constructs. Briefly, if employees perceive that their organisation supports them (or is committed to them) then using the two premises of organisational support theory, obligations and personification, there is a corresponding positive impact on employee emotions and cognitions and consequently a positive impact on engagement outcomes. Further, if employees perceive that their organisation supports them then this impacts on the thinking that is required for the job and the feelings associated with the job, work and organisation, which leads to positive engagement outcomes. This leads to the next proposition:
Proposition Five; Organisational Characteristics - A supportive organisational environment will have a positive effect on each of the individual engagement capabilities (emotions and
cognitions) and the individual engagement outcomes. (Figure 4-4, P5)
4.1.2.2.
The Design of the Job
Another organisational characteristic which can be seen as an important antecedent to engagement is the design of the job. Job design is most often measured according to the job characteristics model developed by Hackman and Oldham (1975, 1980). This instrument measures the job attributes of: autonomy, task identity, task significance, skill variety and feedback from the job. In Chapter 3 (Section 3.3.2) various job dimensions were identified as important for academic engagement such as: task identity, autonomy, job challenge and skill variety (Winter & Sarros 2002). These core job characteristics fulfil employees’ personal needs and lead to the psychological states: through experienced meaningfulness, experienced responsibility and knowledge of results. It was argued in Chapter 3 that the academic population is unique for its high levels of autonomy and flexibility and so academics should ordinarily be more likely to have these job attributes. However, given the negative impact of the dramatic changes to the Higher Education sector on that group of workers, many studies have found them to exhibit increased stress; and to report time pressures, lack of resources and over- worked (Eveline 2004; Solondz 1995; Winter & Sarros 2002; Winter, Taylor & Sarros 2000). In other words, despite their relatively high levels of autonomy and flexibility academics appear to be less engaged than their organisational characteristics would predict.
Chapter 2 presented an argument derived from Kahn (1990), May et al. (2004) and Olivier and Rothman (2007) that the psychological states are important for employee engagement to develop (section 2.2.2). Saks (2006) identified that the job characteristics model represents an important antecedent to both job and organisational engagement, which supports the Hackman and Oldham’s (1980) contention that having the set of core job dimensions will lead to an enhanced psychological state which is a subsequent determinant of job satisfaction and a source of motivation.
Job characteristics have been found to be a significant antecedent in research on work behaviours and these were detailed in Chapter 3 (section 3.3.2). In an academic sample Winter and Sarros (2002) found support for the link between job characteristics and overall organisational commitment, where the job characteristics incorporated: autonomy, task identity, feedback and job challenge (Section 3.1.3). With regards to the emotions and cognitions, it is believed that if one has the job design or the job characteristics that are keys to job enrichment (Hackman & Oldham 1980) then this should impact both on one’s thinking and one’s feelings with regards to the job, work and organisation and subsequent engagement outcomes. Similarly, Renn and Vandenberg (1995, p. 299) found that the core job dimensions have a direct impact on different outcomes stemming from the immediate affective response to the job from the activation of cognitions. This suggests a key link between cognition and emotion as was discussed in the individual engagement capabilities section: 4.1.1.3. This leads to the next proposition;
Proposition Six; Organisational Characteristics - The design of the job (job characteristics) will have a positive effect on the individual engagement capabilities (emotions and cognitions)
and the individual engagement outcomes. (Figure 4-4, P6)
4.1.2.3.
Job Design (characteristics) and a Supportive Environment
Taken together both of the organisational characteristics discussed above are antecedents to the individual engagement capabilities and the individual engagement outcomes. The previous section and Chapter 3 (section 3.3.1 and 3.3.2) canvassed the literature and developed theoretical arguments for both perceived organisational support and the job characteristics as key antecedents to the engagement dimensions (Saks 2006). This was supported in the engagement literature, the wider literature and the in studies conducted in the context of academia (eg Winter and Sarros (2002). These two organisational characteristics are positioned as integral to the development of the knowledge worker and the engagement of this unique workgroup.
Despite the research using these two dimensions, evidence of a causal nature between the two is limited. Hutchison (1997) found perceived organisational support to be an intermediate link between various antecedents and affective commitment. These antecedents were; role related variables, structural and work experiences. Mowday et al. (1979) developed and tested these antecedents variables in a previous organisational commitment study. The study by Hutchison (1997) indicates that POS can be an intermediate link with affective commitment, and the characteristics of the job may then act as the antecedent. The characteristics of the job may encapsulate some of the ideas captured by Mowday et al. (1979) antecedents, particularly, the structural and work experience variables.
Hutchison (1997) also proposed a two stage model of antecedents and affective commitment with perceived organisational support as the intermediate link. In that model, stage one antecedents were evaluated as a source of support that is attributed to the actions of management. In this case, the characteristics of the job are attributable to management. In other words, the job has been designed by management to have certain characteristics and supply certain information such as autonomy, task identity, task significance, skill variety and perceived feedback from the job. Using the logic of Hutchison, this would impact on the perceived level of support. In stage two, the perception of support mediates the effect of the antecedent (characteristics) on the outcome. In Hutchinson’s scenario this is affective commitment. But this may extend to other variables, especially considering previous research links to both job characteristics and a supportive organisation. It may for this thesis mean that the design of the job will impact on the perception of a supportive environment (Figure 4-4). If university management provides the key job characteristics (autonomy, task identity, task significance, skill variety and feedback from the job) then it will be more likely that academics will view the organisation as supportive (committed to them). This leads to the next proposition:
Proposition Seven; The design of the job (characteristics) will positively affect the perception of a supportive organisational environment. (Figure 4-4, P7)
Figure 4-4 Proposition Relationships for the Organisational Antecedents to Engagement
In this section two organisational characteristics were argued to be antecedents to the engagement dimensions: perceived organisational support and the job characteristics. Both of these organisational dimensions were considered in the context of academia and it is proposed that they would both individually impact on the emotional engagement capabilities, the cognitive engagement capabilities and the individual engagement outcomes. This thesis argues that these two organisational characteristics are considered to be key antecedents to all the dimensions of engagement. The relationships are illustrated in Figure 4-4, which identifies the three research propositions introduced in this chapter. Within the wider literature there is limited research to support a specific casual relationship between perceived organisational support and job characteristics; it was therefore proposed that there was a relationship between the two and three research propositions were developed. The next section moves to consider the contextual variables for this study.