Khan et al., (2012) undertook research investigating the causative relationship between sport and exercise and the health of a nation. Key findings highlight the fact that clinicians can influence many patients through encouragement and short-term interventions relating to sport and PA. Khan et al. (2012) defined the difference between PA, sport and exercise. PA is “any bodily movement produced by skeletal
muscles that results in energy expenditure” and is positively correlated with physical
fitness (Khan et al., 2012, p.59). This includes activities such as housework, shopping
and gardening. Whereas, exercise is “repetitive, planned and structured bodily
movement and the objective is to improve or maintain physical fitness. Sport is a subdivision of exercise, it can be individual or team based and participants adhere to a set of rules and a defined goal (Khan et al., 2012, p.59).
The belief is that elite sport encourages mass participation. The demonstration effect is suggested as a method to increase sport and PA levels, however Weed et al. (2009; 2015) suggests that there is no evidence for an inherent demonstration effect, but the SMEs provides potential if properly leveraged, it may result in an increased frequency of participation, but it is only effective for individuals positively engaged in sport. This relationship between elite sport and mass participation has been investigated by academics, as well as, used politically to justify the hosting of SMEs (Coalter, 2007; Frawley and Cush, 2011; Hanstad and Skille, 2010; Hogan and Norton, 2000; Frawley, Toohey, and Veal 2013; Weed et al., 2015). It is commonly characterised as the ‘trickle-down effect’ (Hindson, Gidlow and Peebles, 1994), which is the process by which mass sports participation is stimulated by public exposure to elite sport.
There is minimal evidence justifying its impact on participation long term (Hogan and Norton, 2000). Additionally, Veal, Toohey and Frawley (2012) suggested that the well-known trickle-down effect can be split into two categories. First, the direct route where individuals are inspired to participate through seeing their sporting idols. Second, via an indirect route this is where participation is supported by the
development of sporting organisations. Additionally, Hanstad and Skille (2010) undertook a Norwegian case study to ascertain if the theory is correct by using a Norwegian Biathlon. They concluded that elite sport can contribute indirectly, but it does not cause mass sport per se (Hanstad and Skille, 2010), through the implementation of economic and organisational advances that could filter through to the grassroots level. The study used a mixed methods approach including interviews, statistics and document analysis providing a diverse data set, in which a more accurate and substantial conclusion was drawn (Hanstad and Skille, 2010).
The success on the elite end of the spectrum, Team GB and London 2012 fulfilled the legacy promise to make the UK a world-leading sporting nation (DCMS, 2007). By achieving a total medal count of 65, Team GB became the most successful British team in 104 years (Gibson, 2012). That said, the ambitious promise of increased mass participation will be more challenging, to achieve as well as to investigate and evaluate. The former Head of Research, Planning and Strategy at SE
stated that “no summer Games has produced an increase in sports participation”
(Collins, 2013, p.56). Coalter (2004) suggests that the trickle-down benefits must form part of a long-term development strategy and that they are not automatically achieved. Girginov (2013) echoes these concerns suggesting that London will not be able to achieve this mass participation increase without enhancing the structural capabilities of the NGBs.
Yet, mass participation seems to be an afterthought for the NGBs, if the elite
level athletes’ priorities are met. The scepticism around the trickle-down effect was
echoed by Weed et al. (2009) who state there is no scientifically valid evidence to support the effectiveness of the trickle-down effect, from international sporting events to mass participation. This highlights the need to improve the organisational, structural and developmental capacities and dynamics of NGBs. They provide services and amenities to a substantial net of approximately 150,000 affiliated sport clubs, more than 3 million sport volunteers and 14.7 million participants and form the backbone of the UK national sports system (Girginov, 2013).
Pappous (2011) researched the feasibility of the Olympic Games leading to an increase in grass-root participation. Athens (2004) was the SMEs under investigation and secondary data was utilised from the Eurobarometer surveys, with supplementary
face to face interviews that were undertaken. The results highlighted an increase in PA from 10% in 2003 compared to 16% in 2004 (Pappous, 2011). However, Greece won the European Football Championship and started the European year of education through sport, which started initiatives linking to PA, across the 2004 period. Hence, there is a multitude of additional factors that could have contributed to this increase in PA, rather than solely the Olympic and Paralympic Games themselves. Additionally, this increase was short lived, as by 2009, only 3% of the population were exercising, which demonstrated lowest participation rates in Europe (Pappous, 2011).
It is worth noting however that security was prioritised at the Athens Olympics, which consumed a sustainable proportion of the budget as it was the first global event, post the 2001 September 11th terrorist attack in America (Pappous, 2011). Thus, instead of a sustainable participation increase, a short-lived spike in PA occurred,
followed by a fall, which is known as a ‘rebound effect’ where participation drops to
levels lower than during the pre-event period (Pappous, 2011). This could have been caused by a lack of planning and leveraging strategies implemented to increase and most importantly sustain the PA increases displayed within the general Greek population.
Bullough (2012) specifically researched one the London 2012 legacies promises which aimed to introduce 1 million adults into regular PA participation. This was investigated by using two national surveys by the DCMS, the TP and APS surveys, alongside a Mosaic Tool from Experian. By utilising these three databases SE could create 19 market segments to improve the understanding of people attitudes towards sport and utilise this information to increase PA levels. Secondary analysis allowed the attitudes and perceptions of non-participant’s to be addressed including the barriers to PA. Bullough (2012) highlighted a strategic approach using market segmentation profiles in specific areas at a micro-level, alongside behaviour change and engagement theory. This approach was used to engage individuals who do not achieve the minimum 30 minutes of participation, 3 times a week; these individuals should be the key target for the objective to increase participation levels of 1 million people (Bullough, 2012).
The official London 2012 Places, People, Play scheme aimed to increase the
facilities. This may indicate a limited focus on leveraging strategies, by placing a strong reliance on the trickle-down effect. The scheme’s budget is £135m, yet only £38 million is targeting the population and engaging them in sport. With £32 million
for ‘Play’, the Sportivate programme provides six weeks coaching in a new sport, £4 million for the ‘Gold Challenge’, to encourage adults to raise money for charity through sporting pursuits (Weed, 2010). £2 million is going toward the ‘People’
element of the programme (sports leaders), yet, £90 million was spent on ‘Places’. Even though it is important to have facilities, this anticipates participants will independently choose to use the facilities, rather than encouraging participation
directly. This is an indirect route and stresses a “build it and they will come” mentality
(Weed, 2010, p.2).
Veal et al. (2012) researched SMEs in Australia, unfortunately results were predominantly speculative, due to poorly maintained data collection, this was improved ensuring more reliable data collection methods for the Rugby World Cup (2003) and the Commonwealth Games (2006). The Sydney Olympic and Paralympic Games (2001) indicated slight increases in PA participation, but surprisingly within non-Olympic sports. The 2003 Rugby World Cup, illustrated the clearest indication of boosted adult and youth participation, but these were already increasing. Finally, the Commonwealth Games in 2006 provided no evidence to suggest that adult participation levels increased, but possible changes in youth participation rates were noted (Veal et al., 2012). Due to data collection issues the results must be viewed tentatively, as due to the lack of consideration towards long term monitoring, which affected the overall reliability and comparability of the sample (Veal et al., 2012). These findings raise an issue of causality relating to SMEs and the possible influential relationship with grass-root participation.