Implementación en el simulador de la estrategia de capa cruzada seleccionada

Leadership development is a contested concept (Carroll and Nicholson, 2014). Some view it as a social process intended to increase inter-personal skills in order to win the trust, respect and commitment of others (Day, 2001). Others consider it to be a more individualistic process, which focuses on developing individual leadership capabilities without emphasising development and change in the surroundings. The individualistic view of leadership development is rejected on the basis of its inability to secure deeper changes in an organisation (Dopson et al., 2016). In this regard, Bolden and Gosling (2006) note that the competency framework9 _{has a tendency to strengthen individualistic} practices of leadership, which may produce a gap between the leaders and the environment in which they work, thereby producing exclusive and individualistic types of leaders. Therefore, leadership development cannot have the potential to enhance organisational performance if other factors such as organisational culture and the availability of trained team members are lacking (Burgoyne et al., 2009).

This implies that there is a need to concentrate on the development of collective leadership rather than on individual leaders, and that leadership development should be part of the overall organisational and management development strategy in universities, which clearly emphasises the post-transformational leadership approach. A post- transformational leadership is one wherein the leader also becomes a follower and a more collaborative approach is taken; all staff work together and roles are allocated to the best person to carry out the task (West et al., 2000). This is in contrast to transformational leadership, wherein a leader is said to inspire others to make changes, but the focus is on the dynamism of the leader in achieving this, by having others to follow them. Furthermore, it is imperative to note that there is a difference between the

development of a leader and leadership. The former is concerned with the individual, whereas leadership development stresses the promotion of an authentic and trusting relationship between leaders and their followers (Avolio and Gardner, 2005). Furthermore, leadership development is not a stand-alone practice but an ongoing process rooted in human capital training principles, alongside the establishment of open, trusting relationships. Training, hence, enables the development of new skills, and the improvement of existing ones, thereby allowing HoDs to further implement their role in a more effective manner.

2.5.3.1 Professional Development Opportunities for HoDs

A review of the existing literature by Anderson and Johnson (2006) identified that professional development opportunities for HoDs in the HE sector are patchy (Floyd, 2016) and that HoDs rely mainly on learning whilst on the job. In Deem’s (2000) study, it emerged that although only one-third of the participants had received formal training, the majority of whom had been involved in various informal learning environments, including the process of identifying and seeking out more experienced colleagues. The findings further suggested that participants strove to interact on an informal basis to facilitate exchanges of information and experiences with senior colleagues. Furthermore, it was evident that individuals sought capabilities, experience, and support from within their disciplines, both internally and externally to their HEI, in the interest of supporting their managerial roles. However, the study did report that informal learning was not well supported. Moreover, there were feelings among the participants that they did not receive sufficient feedback relating to their performance in their managerial role.

This has also been noted in a study conducted by Johnson (2002) as part of the Deem (2000) Economic and Social Research Council grant (ESRC). The study found that the majority of HoDs had received minimal training and that they perceived the training they

had received as inadequate. In addition, the research also identified that HoDs’ learning occurred not just through engagement in practice but also through their interaction on a social level. It was recommended that opportunities for critical self-reflection, peer feedback, and sharing of experiences needed to be promoted. Another study undertaken in Russia also found that HoDs lacked formal training prior to assuming their roles, although once performing the role, they did in fact receive support and attend formal courses (Mercer and Pogosian, 2012). These various shortcomings aside, it does appear that some initiatives have been implemented to formalise HoD training in certain contexts. For example, a study conducted by Bolden et al. (2008a), found a more established system of leadership development in the UK since specific and needs-based leadership courses are offered at all levels. Moreover, that study identified leadership as an ongoing process rather than a stand-alone developmental approach, in recognition of the dynamism of the HE sector and the knowledge that continuous professional development can equip leaders to respond to environmental changes swiftly.

Additionally, the researchers found that within UK HE, there is more focus on individual level leadership development, evidenced through mentoring, coaching, developing qualifications and job shadowing (Bolden et al., 2008a). Similarly, Burgoyne et al. (2009) found that the UK HEIs had achieved notable progress with regard to leadership development, which is accorded priority by policy-makers and senior management in the HE sector. This study confirmed the use of role shadowing, mentoring, pre-selection and in-service training in leadership development in HE. It also found that most universities had updated their strategy on leadership development. Often, the responsibility for developing leadership lays with the Human Resources Department, suggesting that leadership development is becoming more aligned with institutional strategies and organisational development programmes. However, it is also

acknowledged that in the UK a large proportion of academic middle managers, such as HoDs, need more intensive support to develop effective leadership skills (Floyd, 2016). Contrastingly, although a focus on individualised development still remains in the UK, Inman (2009) in her investigation of how 18 middle leaders from six chartered universities in England learnt to lead, found a persistent lack of formalised opportunities for professional development. In other words, the leaders learned professional skills such as managing budgets and managing human resources whilst on the job. Inman (2009) proposed several strategies to provide professional development support to middle leaders, which included the establishment of a formal mentoring system that not only encourages network building but also provides guided critical reflection in practice. It was also highlighted that context-specific courses and opportunities to meet other people in the same role would be useful for developing leadership skills. Other studies have also reported that HoDs require training to help them adopt to the range of personal and professional identities required of the post and have also identified the lack of both formal and informal management training, and moral and social support strategies to deal with difficult situations (Floyd and Dimmock, 2011; Preston and Price, 2012). However, it is notable that although the findings were of interest and shed light on different perspectives, due to the sample size in these studies being relatively small, the generalisability of the findings to a wider population is questionable.

2.5.3.2 Timing and Content of Training

The significance of professional development for HoDs is clear, but the associated issue of when that development should begin is also important, since the timing of such input may have a substantial impact upon their performance in the role. In the studies of both Bolden et. al. (2008a) and Inman (2009), it was confirmed that HoDs wished they could have received training before they assumed their positions. Inman (2009) identified a

need for training on specific topics such as the management of human resources instead of generic leadership training. Preston and Price (2012) reported the need for the development of inter-personal skills and training in financial management. Deem et al. (2007) stated that all such training should be relevant and supportive to the HoD role. These researchers specifically found that the HoD’s role as an entrepreneurial agent of change should be considered and training in the facilitation of cultural dynamics and managing performance and risk should be included.In the USA, Aziz et al. (2005) found that training related to budgeting, funding, staff, and legal matters was considered necessary by their participant HoDs who came from a public sector university in Ohio. Evidence from developing countries has also identified important areas where training for HoDs is required. For example, Nguyen (2012) analysed available documentation in order to identify HoDs’ training needs; the situation was found to be critical in as much as there was an urgent need to clarify the role of HoDs, to improve their English language proficiency, to develop their communication skills, to provide "general" management skills including those involved in project planning, and to develop skills related to research methods. This contrasts with the studies discussed above wherein researchers have identified "specific" training needs to perform the role of an HoD. From the above discussion, it is apparent that various approaches to the professional development of HoDs are in existence. Knight and Trowler (2001) have produced their own synthesis of knowledge types required by HoDs to perform their role effectively, and the seven types identified are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Types of Knowledge Associated with Leadership Development at Departmental Level

Source: Knight and Trowler (2001)

These seven forms of knowledge provide a comprehensive framework for determining, designing, and delivering leadership development courses and support for HoDs in HE. However, given the fact that each HEI and academic department operates in a different context and thus has distinctive training needs, it also seems a challenge to systematically organise and deliver training on these forms of knowledge. Moreover, knowledge is only one of the attributes required by leaders; other elements like attitude, behaviour, values and principles play a role in leadership.

Moreover, it is also found that emotions play a role in the decision-making process in the HE sector (Bolton and English, 2010), and that the training of university middle leaders should acknowledge this. This idea is borne out by Australian research conducted by Parrish (2015), which used semi-structured interviews with HoDs to investigate the place of emotional intelligence in effective leadership. The study conducted pre- and post- leadership development intervention data from departmental and faculty level heads.

No. Type of knowledge Description

1 Control knowledge A kind of self-awareness obtained through reflective practice

2 Knowledge of people Inter-personal skills and emotional intelligence

3 Knowledge _{educational practice} of Such as the best ways of teaching and learning

4 Conceptual knowledge Knowledge about management and leadership concepts

5 Process knowledge Including knowledge of various processes involved in leadership and management

6 Situational knowledge The knowledge of the existing conditions of the staff and their impact on the future