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At this point, it is useful to explore educational policies and practices in Europe towards religious pluralism in education. The debate regarding the relationship between religion and education in schools is a topic which is contested throughout Europe. The significance of religion and its role and value in society differs across Europe and different educational systems offer different approaches to the teaching of religion. Denominational schools are a common feature in many European countries and religion remains strongly influential (Faas et al. 2016). For the purpose of this literature review however, significant developments in the area of religious diversity in public rather than denominational education across Europe will be the focus. While there are a diversity of views about the place of religion in schools in Europe, there is also a consensus emerging on some principles that may guide the debate (Byrne 2013).

2.5.1 The Council of Europe

Following the 9/11 terrorist attack in New York in 2001, a priority was given by the Council of Europe to the role of religion in the public square and the promotion of religious education as a means to protect human rights, promote democracy and help build cohesive societies. The first project in 2002 The New Challenge of Intercultural Education: Religious Diversity

and Dialogue in Europe focused on the relationship of religion with culture. It concluded

that ‘regardless of the truth or falsity of religious claims, religion is a part of life and culture and therefore should be understood by all citizens as part of their education’ (Jackson 2012, p. 170). The Council went on to publish two reference books for public schools in Europe;

The Religious Dimension of Intercultural Education (2005) and Religious Diversity and Intercultural Education (2007). In 2008 a set of recommendations on teaching religious and

non-religious beliefs within intercultural education were published for governments, policy- makers and educators. The recommendations are as follows:

i. Intercultural dialogue is a pre-condition for the development of tolerance in Europe; ii. There should be respect for the rights of individuals to hold particular religious

beliefs;

iii. Teaching about religious and non-religious convictions is consistent with the aims of education for a democratic citizenship;

iv. Promoting dialogue between people from different cultural, religious and non- religious convictions is important in schooling;

v. Respecting the dignity of everyone and promoting mutual trust and understanding is important for education in the twenty-first century. (Council of Europe 2008). Essentially, the Council is emphasising that learning about religions and learning from religious diversity through dialogue is a necessity for a democratic, cohesive Europe that protects human rights. Following the 2008 recommendations another publication, Signposts:

Policy and Practice for Teaching about Religions and Non-Religious Worldviews in Intercultural Education (Jackson 2014) was produced by the Council of Europe. This

document is for policy-makers, schools and teacher-educators to specifically address the issues that may arise in schools and colleges. It suggests tools and didactical approaches to managing challenges that may arise. One of these challenges is the integration of non- religious convictions or beliefs with studies of religious beliefs. A further publication by the Council was produced in 2016, Competences for Democratic Culture, for policy-makers and educational practitioners. It provides a model for developing competences for citizens to participate effectively in a democratic society. The model can be used to assist the development of curriculum, the design of pedagogies and new forms of assessment.

2.5.2 The Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs

Simultaneously, in 2007, a team of international lawyers, educators and social scientists gathered to work on the formulation of international guiding principles for teaching about religions and beliefs in public schools. Its concern was to consider the place of the study of religions and beliefs, including non-religious worldviews, in public education. The result was

the production of the Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in

Public Schools, named after the city in which the drafting team first worked on the text

(OSCE 2007). The writers chosen were picked for their particular expertise, not as representatives of different religions or worldviews. However, they happened to be from a cross section of religious and philosophical backgrounds (Jackson, 2013).

The primary goal of the Toledo Guiding Principles is to assist in the promotion of the study of religions and beliefs in public schooling and third level institutions. They offer criteria and recommendations that need to be considered when teaching about religions and beliefs and argue that these have human rights implications and must be heeded by all stakeholders in public education. They seek to increase understanding of the growing variety of religious and philosophical beliefs in society and the renewed visibility of religion in the public square. The guiding principles argue that there is value in an education that holds at its core a respect for everyone’s right to freedom of religion and belief. This is turn increases cohesion in society and tolerance for the plural nature of society today (OSCE 2007).

These recommendations and guiding principles represent the views of policy-makers, lawyers and educators but do not include the views of students.

2.5.3 The REDCo Research Project

The REDCo research project explored the subject of young people and religion in European countries between 2006 and 2009. It sought to gain an insight into how students from eight European countries, between the ages of 14-16 years, see the relevance or irrelevance of religion in their daily lives, in the school environment, and in society as a whole.

Overall, the respondents of the study were clearly aware of the diversity of religious and non-religious worldviews that exist in society. The majority of the students in the study agree that religious education should be taught in schools (REDCo 2009). Those that disagreed were in the minority and largely regarded religious education as boring or irrelevant. Interestingly, there was also a majority consensus that religious education was an important subject to study but that school was not the place for religious practice (Knauth et al. 2011).

While acknowledging contextual differences between and within the participant countries, Jackson (2011) summarises the REDCo findings as including the following:

• Students wish for peaceful coexistence across differences, and believe this to be possible;

• For students peaceful coexistence depends on knowledge about each other’s religions and worldviews and sharing common interests as well as doing things together; • Students who learn about religious diversity in school are more willing to have

conversations about religions/beliefs with students of other backgrounds than those who do not;

• Students wish to avoid conflict: some of the religiously committed students feel vulnerable;

• Students want learning to take place in a safe classroom environment where there are agreed procedures for expression and discussion;

• Most students would like the state-funded school to be a place for learning about different religions/worldviews, rather than for instruction into a particular religion/worldview.

This research with young people and the policy developments from Europe over the last ten years clearly emphasise the importance of religious education in public schooling. It is interesting that the emphasis is primarily on learning about religions and inter-religious dialogue.