In this section, I review a selection of studies on music school teaching in the Nordic countries and analyse aims and challenges as they emerge in the different research projects. Some reports from music schools in France, Switzerland and Poland have already been mentioned. The review below is limited to studies from Finland and the other Nordic countries, which are most comparable to each other through their long traditions of public sector funding and their purposes of combining high quality teaching and learning with democratic ideals and the
40 The expression “varieties of goodness” is borrowed from the title of Finnish philoso-
pher Georg Henrik von Wright’s book on ethics (1963), but the reference should not be understood in terms of methodological similarity or comparison; rather, as an homage.
21 notion of ‘music for all’.41
In addition, I have limited the review to research from the past two decades and to inquiries with relevance to the present project. I will focus on the aims and challenges of teaching and learning in music schools and the ways in which the concerned actors and policy makers, according to the studies, have thought that these purposes might best be promoted.
In Finland, research on music schools since the late 1990s has generally been related to one or several of three major issues. First, there has been a concern that large numbers of children learn music inside an educational system which used to be primarily destined for preprofessional training, a situation which might have the unwanted effect of leaving most students with a sense that they are failing. Second, for the same reason, there has been a concern for teachers, whose professional identity and pride used to be tied to the objective of training future professionals and who might be facing a sense of double failure: becoming a teacher instead of making a more valued career as a musician, and teaching children who for the most part will not study music professionally. Third, researchers have attempted to analyse the quality, scope and appropriateness of approaches to teaching and learning in music schools. Suggested solutions and directions for development tend to crystallise in terms such as flexibility, versatility and individualisation, often bringing arguments close to some liberal tradition where individual freedom is promoted (see Heimonen, 2002). The review that follows will indicate how the three issues mentioned above have been treated by different researchers, but also show that in some areas, there has been a chronological progression as new curricula have been developed and music schools have adapted in response to criticism and new ideas.
A major evaluation of education in Finnish music schools was undertaken by the National Board of Education in 1998 (Heino & Ojala, 1999). The study included a report from visits at six music schools (Kurkela & Tawaststjerna, 1999). One key finding was that the national curriculum was not always discussed and the local curriculum was not necessarily seen as particularly relevant or important for the daily work. This worried the authors, because both of them had previously been active in emphasising collaborative reflection on the deeper purposes of music schools with the overall aim of protecting values of flexibility, freedom and joy along with high quality in teaching and learning (p. 106). The authors also noted that music school teachers sometimes had to handle tasks that pushed them to the edge of their professional competence, since they were sometimes the only trusted adults available to offer support and security
41 At the time of the study, the Nordic countries are cooperating to articulate a common
Nordic music school policy (http://damusa.dk/et-staerkt-ja-til-nordisk-samarbejde/). For an overview of the patchwork of ideals and policies represented by the national music school associations that are members of the European Music School Union, see Riediger, Eicker and Koops (2010). For an in-depth comparison between Swedish and Finnish music schools, see Heimonen (2004).
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during crises in students’ lives. The possibility of providing professional supervision or similar forms of support in order to protect the well-being of teachers was discussed.42
Starting from the two principles “the right to education” and “freedom in education”, Heimonen (2002) explored legislation pertaining to Finnish, Swedish and German music schools in an interdisciplinary study with both hermeneutic and analytical features. Combining perspectives from music education and from law, she asked what kind of regulation would best promote the aims of extracurricular music education for children and adolescents. The study concluded that a regulative model which maintains a good balance between positive and negative freedom would secure financial stability while producing conditions for human autonomy. According to Heimonen, this would leave space for teachers, students and families to pursue “holistic” aims in music education; in other words, a variety of aims related to human experience (p. 21). Around the same time, several researchers turned their attention to students’ experiences of music school studies. Framing her understandings through existential phenomenology, Kosonen (2001) found that for 13- to 15-year-old piano students, “essential” personal meaning emerged as a “network” which involved music itself, the joy of playing, and enjoying the contact with a skilled, encouraging teacher (pp. 142–143). Similarly, in a narrative-biographical study of young piano students’ identities, Hirvonen (2003) found that for young students who had moved from having music as one hobby among others to becoming a music professional, social interaction with significant persons was central. Recognition achieved through successful studies and competitions played a major role, but one particular, supportive teacher had often been of key importance to the students’ accomplishments and the orientation of their studies. Tuovila (2003) combined philosophical and critical hermeneutics with research on childhood and child-centred music education in order to gain deeper knowledge about 7- to 13-year-old children’s music making and experiences of music school studies and form a research basis for improving music school teaching. Grounding her results in interviews with 66 children at four music schools in Helsinki, their parents, teachers and headmasters, Tuovila found that learning outcomes were strongly influenced by the degree to which the children felt that their own goals and proposals had an effect on teaching. The personal and diverse character of music school studies was highlighted in all three studies. Kosonen called for clearer acceptance of other than preprofessional aims. Hirvonen suggested that increased attention to students as individuals and to teachers’ personal qualities might be helpful for a better understanding of successful teaching and learning. Tuovila noted that collaboration between students, parents and teachers was central in developing approaches to teaching
42 In Finland, professional supervision (työnohjaus in Finnish, arbetshandledning in
Swedish) aims at supporting professionals in processing work-related issues, experiences and emotions, see http://www.suomentyonohjaajat.fi/english/index.php.
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that would prevent dropout and promote desired musical learning outcomes as well as self-esteem, group participation, and personal initiative.
Two scholarly books published shortly after these studies (Anttila, 2004; Lehtonen, 2004) reported that students’ experiences were not only positive in Finnish music schools. The authors directed strong critique against what they described as unpsychological, narrow and even abusive approaches to teaching and learning music. They also discussed the issue of dropouts from music schools, suggesting that disappointment might be one reason that students discontinued their studies. Research that might explain the relatively high rate of dropout has not been conducted and recent statistics are not available, but the problem seems to persist. According to an estimate by the chair of the Association of Finnish Music Schools, only slightly more than one in three students will take the first level of final music school exams, and only about 5% of students graduate from the advanced syllabus programme, numbers tending downwards to correspond roughly to the proportion of students who continue to professional studies (L. Nystén, personal communication, September 23, 2015). Dropout rates recorded by the National Board of Education in 2004–2005 (Heino & Ojala, 2006) revealed that yearly, 9.2 % of all music school students (extended and general syllabus combined) interrupted their studies, 8.2 % among females and 9.4 % among males.43
Two studies from the mid-2000s focused on teachers. Using a narrative- biographical approach, Huhtanen (2004) analysed the experiences of thirteen Finnish women who were educated as pianists but had become piano teachers. The transition from one identity to another was described as a conflict-laden experience of ‘ending up’. The respondents often felt at a loss about how to handle the realities of classroom teaching but rarely shared their experiences with colleagues. Broman-Kananen (2005) set out to describe, analyse and understand the qualitative consequences of the increase in number and importance of Finnish music schools, especially from teachers’ points of view. The study used a historical and biographical approach, building on Giddens’ concept of ‘episodes’ (Giddens, 1984, 1990). On the basis of autobiographies written by 38 teachers and analysis of articles, laws, committee reports and curricula, Broman-Kananen identified two major transitions in the history of Finnish music schools between the 1960s and the mid-1990s. The first transition occurred when a pioneer generation of music school teachers, deeply committed
43 Music schools surveyed by Heino and Ojala (2006) cited quite a large number of dif-
ferent speculations about reasons for student dropout, including school work, other inter- ests, friends, adolescence, youth culture not supporting traditional studies, unwillingness to pass exams, financial problems, relocation, inability in students to commit to long- term study, and “lack of talent and application” (pp. 23–24, my translation). According to the chair of the Association of Finnish Music Schools, students seem primarily inter- ested in learning practical music skills, not in graduating; one reason may be that no points are currently attributed for music school exams in applications to higher education (L. Nystén, personal communication, September 23, 2015).
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to “the force of music” (p. 109), created teaching routines for classrooms; the second followed when younger teachers faced changing realities and were forced to deal with breaking points, crises and dilemmas in their professional identities and routines. Overall, Broman-Kananen argued, there were signs of an “individualising shift” where teachers were searching for “something of their own” (p. 5), and their reflecting both on teaching itself and on the grounds for it had given rise to a new “reflexive and questioning teacher identity” (p. 6). Both studies seemed to indicate that music school teachers could no longer be fitted, Procrustean-style, into identities of failed or reasonably successful instrumental soloists whose task it would be to provide young children with the basics for attempting ‘serious’ careers. According to Huhtanen, the reserve of cultural stories about being a music professional needed to be enriched if instrumental teaching was to gain more recognition. She criticised the Sibelius Academy for favouring soloist identities over teacher identities, and recommended a more child-centred perspective in future teacher training. Similar critique was articulated by music school directors interviewed for a subsequent report (Pohjannoro, 2010).
From the mid-2000s, acknowledgement that music schools needed a more diverse basis for their activities was visible in several research projects. In a second major study carried out by the National Board of Education, Heino and Ojala (2006) conducted surveys on how music school directors and/or other staff in positions of responsibility thought that teaching and learning should be developed in the future. Respondents continued to insist that contents and teaching methods needed to be developed and that dropouts needed to be prevented. In addition, they pointed out that methods for student assessment had to be improved, and that music schools would be well-advised to find new ways of making music in groups.
Since the field of music itself was changing and diversifying, music school teachers’ qualifications were called into question. As part of a comprehensive analysis of the relation between areas of musical activity and professional competence, two national reports about music schools were carried out between 2008 and 2010. Music school directors reported that their teachers were still lacking professional knowledge with respect to musical versatility (generally meaning knowledge of other than classical genres), group and ensemble teaching, and improvisation. In addition, general pedagogical knowledge and skill as well as knowledge about early childhood education were specifically mentioned as areas in need of development (Pohjannoro & Pesonen, 2009, p. 13). Among societal tendencies which could have a negative effect on music schools, respondents mentioned a general decline in appreciation for arts and artistic skill combined with commercialisation of art, leading to a situation where the values of art risked being confounded with market values and the contents and aims of music school teaching might be defined by market demand or providers of funding (p. 22).
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A follow-up study (Pohjannoro, 2010) relied on qualitative interviews with nine music school directors who had been identified as “visionary” on the basis of the first report (p. 10).44 In line with the previous study, the results suggested that music schools were moving towards increased versatility and flexibility in terms of courses offered, methods used, and target groups envisaged. Developing a strong teacher identity and “educational attitude” (p. 61)45
was considered important; the two pillars of music school teaching being defined as expertise/mastery (of an instrument) and pedagogical knowledge. One aspect of pedagogical skill which was mentioned as a crucial challenge was the ability to motivate students for long-term commitment to music. As Tuovila’s (2003) study had already indicated, child-centredness, sufficient individualisation, and clear and constructive communication between music schools, students and families were seen as good ways of preventing frustration and dropout. Music school directors tended to consider younger teachers as more able to relate well to children and adapt teaching methods and contents as needed, whereas the older generation was sometimes seen as being disadvantaged in this respect, notably since their education had not always included courses in developmental psychology.
By the early 2010s, then, there seemed to be consensus that pedagogical development was the key to desired results, but how the work should be done was another issue. Pohjannoro (2011) noted that music school education characterised by variety, flexibility, and a sense of responsibility for both future amateurs and professionals would require systemic, comprehensive and holistic approaches to development.46 On the whole, music school teachers were perceived as committed and appreciated professionals. Enhanced professional knowledge seemed to be called for in the areas of “pedagogical ability” and “interaction skills” (p. 11).47
Although there had been a clear increase in music making in groups since the first report by Heino and Ojala (1999) and the importance of community and social dimensions of music was widely accepted, teachers’ lack of experience in leading groups, ensembles and orchestras sometimes slowed down desired development. In the future, it was argued in the report, music school teachers would be expected to serve local, versatile “centres
44 Eight of the respondents were directors at music schools as defined in the present
study.
45 The Finnish expression used was kasvatuksellinen asenne, which might be translated
as an attitude characterised by a readiness to take responsibility for students’ develop- ment both in music and as growing human beings.
46 I have used all three words to attempt to cover the Finnish term kokonaisvaltainen,
which can translate as holistic, overall, concerning the whole person, pervasive, compre- hensive, global, systemic, and integrated. Several of the English terms seem to apply here; the reader is trusted to refer to the contextual meaning.
47 In Finnish: pedagoginen osaaminen (osaaminen referring to both ability and
knowledge) and vuorovaikutustaidot (communication skills or interaction skills, both related to social skills).
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of expertise” (Pohjannoro, 2011, p. 11) which would collaborate across art forms and sectors of society.
At the request of the National Ministry for Education and Culture, Tiainen et al (2012) evaluated the functionality of national core curricula and the pedagogy applied within basic education in all the arts included in the system. The empirical material included surveys of school directors (N = 291), teachers (N = 443) and visits to educational institutions (N = 22). According to the evaluation group, teaching methods in music schools were generally good or very good; the degree to which students were taken into account and listened to was by now considered excellent. Suggestions for further development included efforts to increase gender equality,48 strengthen pedagogical methods for different learners, and provide better possibilities for students to choose their own paths within the framework of the national curriculum (p. 102). In addition, internal evaluation and continuing professional development among teachers were seen as important across all schools providing basic education in different art forms. Pedagogical development projects existed, but were still rather modest. A substantial increase in research related to pedagogical development within basic education in the arts was seen as desirable. Directors and teachers noted that lifeworlds, values, and opinions about what should be considered important in life were shifting rapidly among students and their parents. Music school teachers and directors in the study called for increased “networked development” and “internal discussions about the aims, methods and successes of development” (p. 104, my translation). In a report on experiences gained from an internal evaluation program developed for schools that provide basic education in arts, several school representatives mentioned that they had been missing collegial discussions about teaching and learning and appreciated the opportunity for collective debate (Marsio, 2014, p. 31).49
In the first study on the subject of gender in Finnish music schools, Kuoppamäki (2015) combined her positions as a researcher and teacher, indicating perhaps that music school teachers were ready to take research on important issues into their own hands.50 Kuoppamäki used ethnographic practitioner inquiry to
48 Of the students in music schools which are members of the Association of Finnish
Music Schools, 64% are female and 36% are male (SML website, http://www.musicedu.fi/fi/etusivu/usein_kysyttya/tiesitko_etta. Retrieved August 4, 2015).
49
Similarly, in a study among teacher educators in higher music education in Finland, Juntunen (2014) found that educators rarely shared, discussed or negotiated their teach- ing with colleagues. Visions related to teaching were strong, but they were seen as per- sonal and private, constructed through own experiences of being a teacher and a musi- cian. Sometimes, educators expressed the need to collaborate, but stated that “not all [colleagues] were willing to share their pedagogical expertise and/or talk openly about pedagogical issues” (p. 172).
50 In addition to the larger studies presented here, a remarkable number of theses about
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understand gendered negotiations among 9-year-old children who participated in the Finnish music school course ‘Basics of music’ (referred to below as Foundations of music). Her findings suggested that ongoing gendered border work in groups interfered with learning and construction of musical agency and required both reflection and sensitivity on the part of the teacher. In particular, Kuoppamäki concluded, the teacher’s ability to move focus from gendered groupings and polarised identities to individual meaning and creativity was decisive in order to facilitate access to participation and meaningful collaborative learning.
By virtue of its focus on developing new forms of expertise in instrumental/vocal teaching, the dissertation Towards sensitive music teaching:
Pathways to becoming a professional music educator (Huhtinen-Hildén, 2012)
also has connections to this study. Within the theoretical framework of empirical