CANJE DE DEUDA EXTERNA POR NATURALEZA
4.1. IMPORTANCIA DEL AMBIENTE
The previous chapter elaborated on the geographical, historical, socio-economic, political and educational context of Sri Lanka and England in which multicultural education in schools takes place. In addition, it explained the civil war in Sri Lanka. This chapter elaborates the role of education within social cohesion. It then examines multicultural education in Sri Lanka (after independence) and, after the Second World War, in England.
3.1 Social cohesion
3.1.1 What is social cohesion?
According to the Directorate General of Social Cohesion of the Council of Europe, social cohesion:
is a concept that includes values and principles which aim to ensure that all citizens, without discrimination and on an equal footing, have access to fundamental social and economic rights. Social cohesion is a flagship concept which constantly reminds us of the need to, be collectively attentive to and aware of, any kind of discrimination, inequality, marginality or exclusion
(Jenson 2010, p.5). Jenson (2010) explains that social cohesion became a key term in policy in the European Union (EU) pointing out that the economic and social cohesion of Europe is a main policy goal.However, the meaning of the concept of social cohesion can differ according to the social and political environment. Berger-Schmitt, (2002) split the concept of social cohesion into two dimensions:
1. The first dimension can be shortly denoted as the inequality dimension. It concerns aspect the goal of promoting equal opportunities and reducing disparities and divisions within a society. This also includes the aspect of social exclusion. 2. The second dimension can be shortly denoted as the social capital dimension. It
concerns the goal of strengthening social relations, interactions and ties and embraces all aspects which are generally considered as the social capital of a society
(Berger-Schmitt, 2002, p. 404-405). A cohesive society needs to work well for all its members, minimising disparities and avoiding marginalization. Cohesion can be fostered by building networks of relationships among members, trust and identity between different groups, fighting discrimination, exclusion and excessive inequalities and enabling upward social mobility (OECD, 2011).
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‘A cohesive society is a mutually supportive community of free individuals pursuing these common goals by democratic means’ (European Committee for Social Cohesion, 2004 cited by Norton and Haan, 2013, p. 11). Social cohesion is a set of social processes that help instill in individuals the sense of belonging to the same community and the feeling that they are recognized as members of the community (French Commissariat General du Plan 1997, cited by Norton and Haan, 2013, p. 11). On the other hand, ‘social cohesion is viewed as a characteristic of a society dealing with the relations between societal units such as individuals, groups, associations as well as territorial units’
(McCracken 1998, cited by Norton and Haan, 2013, p.11). The Council of Europe (2001) explains that social cohesion needs to ensure every citizen has the opportunity to access:
• the means to secure their basic needs; • progress;
• protection and legal rights; and • dignity and social confidence.
However, ‘Lack of access to these fields operates against social cohesion’ (Council of Europe 2001, p.5).Easterly et al (2006, cited by Norton and Haan, 2013 p. 11) also see the lack of social cohesion as based on the nature and extent of social and economic divisions within society such as income, ethnicity, political party, caste, language and so on which create societal cleavages.
According to Jenson (2010) little attention was paid to social cohesion in Britain until 1997 with the election of the Labour government, when a Social Exclusion Unit was established to provide a broad overview of issues of social challenges. Cheong, et al (2007:28) noted that a number of government reports mention that there was a need to build a ‘successfully integrated society’ and increase ‘community cohesion’ particularly amongst communities that experienced the most serious civil disturbances. Citizenship Education was introduced in schools in 2002, following the outbreak of civil disturbances in Northern England in 2001. Policy discourse identified insufficient social cohesion as a danger (Hulse and Stone, 2007, Home office 2001). Similar concerns were raised after the July 7th (2005) bomb attack on the tubes in London
(
http://www.guardian.co.uk/july7 accessed 07-07-2013
) and in 2011 following the summer riots. Increasing ethnic diversity in schools has exacerbated the need for better understanding and privatising of community cohesion (DFES, 2007, Rhamie, Bhopal and Bhatti, 2012).35
3.1.2 Education and social cohesion
Education is considered one of the key factors for social cohesion (Kantzara, 2011). According to the Encyclopedia of Education (2002) education contributes to social cohesion in four ways. Firstly schools need to teach the rules that govern interpersonal and political action. They consist of the social and legal principle attached to good citizenship, obligations to political leaders and behaviour expected of citizens. Schools can facilitate a student’s appreciation for the complexity of issues related to historical and global current events. Secondly, schools are expected to provide an understanding of and experience of citizenship principles, in effect decreasing the distance between individuals of different origins. The education experience derives from the classroom, the hallway, schoolyard, playground or bus. However, how the school does this depends on its ability to design the formal curriculum, its culture and the social capital of the surrounding community. Thirdly, school systems are expected to provide equity of opportunity for all students. Fourthly schools are expected to incorporate the interests and objectives of many different groups and attempt to provide a common underpinning for citizenship. Schools can accomplish this through many mechanisms such as public school boards, professional councils, parent-teacher associations and public support.
3.1.3 Models of cohesion in schools
Education is linked to social cohesion in two broad ways, internally and externally. Internally it helps to build students’ personalities and externally it helps individuals to link to society and participate meaningfully (Kantzara, 2011). According to Fernando (2010) there can be three models of cohesion where ethnic groups exist in a Sri Lankan context.