IMPORTE MINIMO

distance between two corneal layers.

Confocal Microscopy of Normal

Cornea

This is a noninvasive technique of imaging of corneal layers that provides excellent resolution with sufficient contrast. A well-executed scan can visualize the corneal endothelium, stroma, subepithelial nerve plexus and epithelial layers distinctly. The limitations are non-visualization of normal Bowman’s layer and Descemet’s membrane since these structures are transparent to this microscope. However, it is possible to view these structures when they are patholo- gically involved. Eyes with corneal opacity or edema can also be successfully scanned.¹ The quality of image depends on: (a) centration of the light beam, (b) stability of the eye, and (c) optimum brightness of the illumination. Fig. 5.1: Optics of confocal microscope

Epithelium

Corneal epithelium has five to six layers. Three different types of cellular component are recognized in the epithelium.

• Superficial (2-3 layers): flat cells

• Intermediate (2-3 layers): polygonal cells • Basal cells (single layer): cylindrical cells.

The superficial epithelial cells appear as flat polygonal cells with well-defined border, promi- nent nuclei and uniform density of cytoplasm. The main identifying features of superficial epithelial cells are nuclei, which are brighter than surrounding cytoplasm and usually associated with perinuclear hypodense ring (Fig. 5.2). The intermediate epithelial cells are similar polygonal cells as superficial layers but the nuclei are not evident. Basal cell layers are smaller in size and appear denser than other two layers (Fig. 5.3). The nucleus is not evident in basal layers also.

Fig. 5.2: Superficial epithelial cells with prominent nuclei

Subepithelial Nerve Plexus

Corneal nerves originate from long ciliary nerve, a branch of ophthalmic division of trigeminal nerve. Nerve fibers from long ciliary nerve form a circular plexus at the limbus. Radial nerve fibers originate from this circular plexus and run deep into the stroma to form deep corneal plexus.

Now deep vertical fibers derive from deep corneal plexus to run anteriorly to form subbasal and subepithelial nerve plexus. Small nerve fibers from subbasal plexus terminate at the superficial epithelium.

This complex anatomy was not possible to visualize in vivo until the advent of corneal confocal microscope. Generally, the nerve fibers appear bright and well contrasted against a dark background (Fig. 5.4). Confocal microscopy can visualize the orientation, tortuosity, width, branching pattern and any abnormality of the corneal nerves.²

Fig. 5.4: Subepithelial nerve fibers

Fig. 5.3: Basal epithelial cells. High cell density with well demarcated cell borders

Stroma

Corneal stroma represents 90% of total corneal thickness. It has three components:

a. Cellular stroma: Composed of keratocytes and constitutes 5% of entire stroma. b. Acellular stroma: Represents the major

component (90-95%) of stroma. The main component has regular collagen tissue (Type-I, III, IV) and interstitial substances. c. Neurosensory stroma: Represented by stromal nerve plexus and nerve fibers originating from it.

The keratocyte concentration is much higher in the anterior stroma and progressively decreases towards the deep stroma. Generally, the keratocyte count is approximately 1000 cells/ mm² in anterior stroma while the average value drops to 700 cells/mm² in the posterior stroma. Confocal image of stroma shows multiple irregularly oval, round or bean-shaped bright structures that represent keratocyte nuclei. These nuclei are well contrasted against dark acellular matrix (Fig. 5.5). Anterior stromal keratocyte nuclei assume rounded bean-shaped morpho- logy while the same in rear stroma are more often irregularly oval. A bright highly reflective keratocyte represents a metabolically activated

keratocyte of a healthy cornea. In a normal healthy cornea collagen fibers and interstitial substances appear transparent to confocal microscope and impossible to visualize. It is possible to identify stromal nerve fibers in anterior and mid stroma. These nerve fibers belong to deep corneal plexus and appear as linear bright thick lines. The stromal nerve fiber thickness is greater than epithelial nerves. Occasionally, nerve bifurcations are also clearly visible. Endothelium

Endothelium is a non-innervated single layer of cells at the most posterior part of cornea. Endothelial cell density is maximal at birth and progressively declines with age. Normal endothelial cell count varies from 1600 to 3000 cells/mm² (average 2700 cells/mm²) in a normal healthy adult.2-4 _{However, cornea can still}

maintain the integrity till the cell count declines below 300-500 cells/mm².

Fig. 5.6: Hexagonal endothelial cells in a healthy cornea

Homogeneous hexagonal cells with uniform size and shape represent healthy endothelial cells. Increasing age and endothelial assault cause pleomorphism and polymegathism. Confocal microscopy easily identifies endothelial cells. These cells appear as bright hexagonal and polygonal cells with unrecognizable nucleus. The Fig. 5.5: Stromal keratocytes with bright oval-shaped nuclei

cell borders are represented by a thin, non- reflective dark line (Fig. 5.6). A X20 objective lens provides wide field with less magnification. It is possible to perform cell count and study the minute details of cellular morphology.

Confocal Microscopy in Corneal

Pathologies

Keratoconus

Keratoconus is a non-inflammatory ectatic disorder of the cornea characterized by a localized conical protrusion associated with an area of stromal thinning. The thinning is most apparent at the apex of the cornea. The steep conical protrusion of the corneal apex causes high myopia with severe irregular astigmatism. Other features of keratoconus include an iron ring, known as Fleischer’s ring that partially or completely encircles the cone.5 _{The cone appears}

as ‘oil drop’ reflex on distant direct ophthalmo- scopy due to internal reflection of light. Deep vertical folds oriented parallel to the steeper axis of the cornea at the level of deep stroma and Descemet’s membrane are known as Vogt’s striae. An acute corneal hydrops appears when there is a break in the Descemet’s membrane. The corneal edema usually subsides after few months leaving behind scar and flattening the cornea. The corneal nerves become more readily visible due to thinning of the cornea. High irregular astigmatism precludes adequate spectacle correction. In the early stages, use of contact lenses may improve the visual acuity. However, contact lens fitting can be extremely difficult and in advanced cases it ceases to improve visual acuity optimally forcing the patient to rely on only options left, corneal transplantation.

The most effective way to identify early cases of keratoconus is computerized corneal topography that has become a gold standard

for diagnosis and follow-up of the disease in recent years.6,7 _{Confocal microscopy is a relatively}

newer investigative modality to assess the keratoconic cornea. Morphological changes in keratoconus are mostly confined to the corneal apex and depend on the severity of the disease. Rest of the cornea may appear normal. The typical polygonal shape of superficial epithelial cells is lost. They appear distorted and elongated in an oblique direction with highly reflective nuclei (Fig. 5.7). Cell borders are not distinguishable. There may be areas of basal epithelial loss as evident by a linear dark non-reflective patch in confocal microscopy. The subepithelial nerve plexus generally appears normal. However, the sub- basal nerve fibers are curved and take the course of stretched overlying epithelium. Corneal stroma is also affected by keratoconus. The confocal images of stroma are highly specific. The characteristic stromal changes are multiple ‘striae’ represented by thin hyporeflective lines oriented vertically, horizontally or obliquely (Fig. 5.8). These are confocal representation of Vogt’s striae.8 _{In advanced stages of keratoconus, the}

keratocyte concentration is reduced in anterior stroma. The shape of the keratocytes is also altered. Occasionally, highly reflective bodies

Fig. 5.7: Obliquely elongated superficial epithelium in keratoconus

with tapering ends are visible in anterior stroma near the apex. The nature of these abnormal bodies is not yet known but it may be due to altered keratocytes. The corneal endothelial changes vary from none to occasional pleomor- phism and polymegathism.

Corneal Dystrophies

Corneal dystrophies are inherited abnormalities

that affect one or more layers of cornea. Usually both eyes are affected but not necessarily symmetrically. They may present at birth but more frequently develop during adolescence and progress gradually throughout life. Some forms are mild, others severe.

Granular Dystrophy

This is an autosomal dominant bilateral non- inflammatory condition that results from deposition of eosinophilic hyaline deposits in the corneal stroma.9 _{It specifically affects the}

central cornea and eventually can cause decreased vision and eye discomfort. Initially, the lesions are confined to superficial stroma

but with progression of the disease they can involve the posterior stroma as well.

Confocal microscopy reveals highly reflective, bright, dense structures in the anterior and mid- stroma. Keratocytes are not involved. Depth of stromal involvement may be ascertained by using ‘Z’ scan function. This is an added advantage over other contemporary investigations that enables surgeon to plan for surgical modalities. Confocal microscopy is also useful in differential diagnosis and follow-up of the disease.

Posterior Polymorphous Dystrophy

Posterior polymorphous dystrophy (PPD) is a rare inherited disorder of the posterior layer of the cornea. It is a bilateral disorder with early onset, although early stage diagnosis is rare since most of the affected individuals remain asymptomatic. The characteristic endothelial changes are small vesicles or areas of geographic lesions. In fact, endothelial cells lining of the posterior surface of the cornea have epithelial- like features.10,11 _{These cells can also cover the}

trabecular meshwork, leading to glaucoma in some patients. Most severe cases may develop corneal edema due to compromised pump function of the endothelial cells.

Confocal microscopy shows multiple round vesicles at the level of Descemet’s membrane and endothelium.12 _{PPD usually distorts the normal}

flat profile of the endothelial cells and present large dark cystic impressions on confocal scan. The endothelial cells surrounding the lesion appear large and distorted.

Fuchs Endothelial Dystrophy

Fuchs endothelial dystrophy is a chronic bilateral hereditary (variable autosomal dominant or sporadic) disorder of corneal endothelium. It typically presents after the age of 50 and more Fig. 5.8: Advanced keratoconus: vertical striae in the

surgery that is currently being successfully used by refractive surgeons for the correction of various types of refractive errors. LASIK has become the technique of choice to correct myopia and hyperopia with or without astigmatism.15 _LASEK

is a modification of photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) where excimer laser is used to ablate superficial corneal stroma after the epithelium has been removed. LASIK involves the use of microkeratome to prepare a hinged corneal flap of uniform thickness. The excimer laser is subsequently used to ablate the mid-corneal stromal bed and thereafter the flap is reposited to its original position without applying any suture. After LASIK, the healing of corneal tissue occurs quickly since there is minimal damage to the corneal epithelium and the Bowman’s membrane.

Traditionally, the cornea is evaluated with slit-lamp biomicroscopy and computerized corneal topography both pre- and postopera- tively. Confocal microscopy adds newer dimen- sions to the commonly employed investigations. Functional outcome of LASIK depends on many factors including the biomechanics, healing process and the inflammatory response of the flap interface that is created between the epithelial flap and stromal bed. Confocal scan is useful in evaluation of following parameters. • Corneal flap thickness

• Interface study a) Healing process b) Inflammatory response c) Abnormal deposits

• Corneal nerve fiber regeneration, and • Residual stromal thickness.

A well-designed flap is the key to successful outcome of LASIK. Thinner flaps are more at risk from flap complications. A few studies with confocal microscopy had suggested that actual flap thickness after LASIK is consistently lower than predicted thickness.16 _{The reasons are not}

common in females. There is a loss of endothelial cells that results in deposition of collagen materials in Descemet’s membrane (guttata). Corneal guttata is the hallmark of this disease. The integrity of corneal endothelium is essential to maintain the metabolic and osmotic function of the entire cornea. Corneal edema in Fuchs dystrophy initially involves the posterior and mid-stroma. As the disease advances, the edema progresses to involve the anterior cornea; resulting in formation of bullous keratopathy. Confocal microscopy is useful to visualize the corneal guttata. This technique has a distinct advantage over conventional specular micro- scopy that fails to visualize the endothelium when there is significant corneal edema.13 _{The corneal}

guttata appears dark with bright central reflex (Fig. 5.9).14 _{In advanced stage the endothelial}

morphology altered completely but it is still possible to identify the distorted cell borders.14

In the early stages of bullous keratopathy, intra- epithelial edema is seen as distorted cellular mor- phology with increased reflectivity. It can also identify the bullae in the basal epithelial layer.

Fig. 5.9: Distorted endothelium in Fuchs endothelial dystrophy

Laser in situ Keratomileusis

Laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) is one of the latest techniques of excimer laser refractive

yet known. However, corneal edema that may be caused by microkeratome cut and suction may play an important role. Postoperative scarring and tissue retraction could be other possible factors. Using a ‘Z’ scan, it is possible to identify the interface that corresponds to a very low level of reflectivity. The flap thickness is obtained by measuring the distance between high reflective spike from the front surface of the cornea and the low reflective interface (Fig. 5.10).

Fig. 5.10: Measurement of flap thickness in LASIK

The interface usually appears as a hyporef- lective space in between relatively hyperreflective cellular stroma. Interface can easily be imaged by confocal microscope. Typically, the keratocyte concentration is lower than normal in the interface. Bright particles and microstriae are consistently visible in the interface. These bright particles most probably originate from microkera- tome blade and represented by highly reflective

white bodies (Fig. 5.11). Microstriae are present at the Bowman’s layer. Excessive interface microstriae and bright particles may lead to astigmatism and eventually poor outcome after LASIK. These microstriae can be imaged with confocal microscope even when the slit-lamp examination is unremarkable.

Fig. 5.11: Bright highly reflective particles at the flap-stroma interface

Diffuse lamellar keratitis (DLK) also known as sands of Sahara syndrome, is a noninfectious inflammation of the interface. The etiology is not known but it is assumed to be toxic or allergic in nature. In confocal scan DLK appears as diffuse and multiple infiltrates in the interface with no anterior or posterior extension.

Subepithelial nerve fibers are affected by LASIK. No nerve is visible in immediate post- operative period. However, the regenerating nerve fibers appear as thin irregularly branching line when confocal scan is performed 5-7 days after surgery. The residual stromal thickness can also be measured using ‘Z’ scan technique as described while evaluating the epithelial flap. Corneal Grafts

Confocal microscope is a useful tool to follow- up the corneal grafts and to diagnose the

abnormal changes that may occur postopera- tively. It provides images at the cellular level to identify any pathological changes even before it becomes clinically evident. It can also be used to assess the donor cornea.

Corneal graft survival is entirely dependent on optimum number of healthy endothelial cells. Endothelial cell loss occurs rapidly after corneal transplantation17_{. Majority of cell loss takes place}

during the first two postoperative years.18 _Several

studies had suggested that endothelial cell loss is much higher after corneal grafting when the primary indications are bullous keratopathy or hereditary stromal dystrophy in compare to keratoconus and corneal leukomas.19,20 _Another

interesting fact is that endothelial cell loss is greater when corneal transplantation is performed on phakic eyes than on aphakics.21

Confocal microscopy scores over conven- tional specular microscopy while evaluating endothelial cell characteristics especially in eyes with stromal edema. Endothelial morphology in confocal scan has been described earlier. Immediate postoperative period, endothelium looks normal and healthy. However, as time progresses, endothelial cell density decreases as evidenced by pleomorphism and polymega- thism. Occasionally, a bright preendothelial deposits appear, the significance of which is not yet known (Fig. 5.12).

Reinnervation after grafting is another issue well addressed by confocal microscopy. First sign of innervation that starts few months after keratoplasty is visible at the periphery of the graft stroma. However, complete innervation may take many years to develop. Regenerated nerve fibers look similar to that found in a normal cornea. Occasionally, they may take a tortuous and convoluted course depending on age (e.g. older patients) and primary indications of keratoplasty (e.g. bullous keratopathy, corneal dystrophies).

It is well known that allograft rejection is one of the most common causes of graft failure. Graft rejection can be classified as epithelial, subepithelial and endothelial rejection, of which the endothelial rejection is the worst. Confocal

Fig. 5.12: Pleomorphism, polymegathism and preendothelial deposits in a corneal graft

Fig. 5.13: Co-existence of degenerated and normal endothelial cells in early endothelial allograft rejection

features of epithelial rejection are distorted basal epithelial cells with altered subepithelial reflectivity. Subepithelial rejection is identified by discrete opacities underneath the epithelial layer.22 _{Endothelial rejection, on the other hand,}

is characterized by coexistence of normal looking and degenerated endothelial cells, focal endo- thelial cell lesions and bright highly reflective microprecipitates (Fig. 5.13).23

Intracorneal Deposits

Sources of intracorneal deposits can be exoge- nous or endogenous. They can involve various layers of cornea individually or in combination.

Exogenous sources:

• Long-term use of contact lenses • Refractive surgery

• Vitreoretinal surgery using silicone oil • Drugs: Amiodarone, Chloroquine

Endogenous sources:

• Wilson’s disease • Hyperlipidemia • Fabry’s disease • Hemosiderosis

The clinical diagnosis is based on slit-lamp biomicroscopy and systemic features in selected cases. The knowledge of confocal features in these disorders is limited except in drug induced keratopathies.

Vortex Keratopathy

Vortex keratopathy known as cornea verticillata is characterized by whorl-like corneal epithelial deposits. It can be induced by various drugs, e.g. amiodarone (used for cardiac arrhythmias) and anti-malarials (chloroquine, hydroxychloro- quine). Clinically, vortex keratopathy is mani- fested as golden-brown opacities at the inferior corneal epithelium. On electron microscopy, they appear as intracytoplasmic lysosom-like lamellar

inclusion bodies located at the basal epithelial layer.24 _{Confocal microscopy adds newer dimen-}

sions to the existing knowledge. It demonstrates involvement of entire cornea, although vortex keratopathy is primarily a corneal epithelial pathology. The characteristic features are presence of highly reflective, bright intracellular deposits at the basal epithelial layer (Fig. 5.14). Overlying epithelium is usually normal. In advanced cases these microdeposits may extend to the stroma and eventually to the endothelium.25

Stromal keratocyte density is often reduced.

Fig. 5.14: Intracellular deposits at basal epithelial layer in amiodarone toxicity

Conclusion

Ophthalmic investigations and instrumentations have come long way over the past decades. Confocal microscope is one of those wonderful innovations in recent time. It is becoming more popular everyday and its indications are expanding. Confocal microscopy is truly an exciting tool that can be useful for the clinical diagnosis, follow-up and analysis of many corneal lesions.

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Aria Mangunkusumo and Vanathi Ganesh for their help.

References

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