Decisions should be based on moral principles, especially justice and altruism, which are the basic values and mother of all other principled ethics. Through advances in science and technology, especially information technology, human connection is increasingly getting closer and the world environment more complex. Thus, many are thinking about the forming of a world village. This concept might be realised if the world has a code of ethics acceptable to all humans but is this possible? There are many countries in this world, with various races and ethnic groups living in them.
Each society has its own laws, rules, code of ethics, customs, cultures and system of administration. The individuals in every society cannot run away from questions of morality and moral problems. Although an individual lives in a modern society, he is still influenced by the rules of customs and cultures of his society. Most probably, he might not be able to solve his modern-life problems with the outdated rules that are still influential in the society.
ACTIVITY 6.5
You have been offered a high position in a company that practises corrupt acts. Is it right for you to accept the position and work within the corrupt system, yet strive to do your best? Can you do it?
This situation is exempted if a courageous individual opposes this system and makes a firm decision without regard for the views of society. If not, he or she might have to face this moral dilemma and live in agony.
When faced with a moral dilemma, what should you do? How would you do it? What are the consequences? What are your feelings? According to Wesserstrom (1979), it is only through virtues that an individual can overcome moral problems. Virtues can be a basic guide for the individual in making decisions and taking actions.
Virtues are the moral content of an individual. Virtues are not basic tools to determine what should or should not be done; in fact, they can create doubt and put an individual in a more blurred and complex situation. The individual would finally seek help by asking „What and how should I do? What? How?‰. If such, how can we solve moral dilemmas or conflicts?
Figure 6.1 shows the process of solving moral dilemmas or conflicts according to Grassian (1981). He suggested two forms of ethics, principlistic and situational.
Figure 6.1: Process of solving conflict or moral dilemma
6.3.1 Principlistic Ethics
When making a decision on a moral dilemma, we can use the most basic moral principles, especially justice and altruism, which are the basic values and mother of all other noble values. Therefore, these two principles will be used as examples in explaining the forms of ethics.
Justice originated from the Latin word justus which means law or right. Now, justice refers to righteousness, rectitude, impartiality and fairness. According to other sources, justice means suitable and appropriate attributes (people, acts, actions, decisions, laws, punishment, etc); impartial to any side (when deciding something and such).
Therefore, the concept of justice involves any fair actions and behaviour towards oneÊs self and others, not detrimental to self and others, as well as treats every one equally without regard for status, race and so on.
The question of justice leads to the issue of human rights and autonomy. A person is entitled to human rights and is free to make his own choices and decisions. However, any action is still subject to the limits of the laws in the country and societal rules. The important question is, are the laws and rules that
restrict actions fair or unjust? We can see many protests by certain parties (factory workers, students, supporters, political leaders) in the world today. Social justice is a tool for preserving the welfare of members of society. Therefore, when judging the justice of a society, we compare its quality with that of other societies, in aspects like wealth, effectiveness, military strength or educational standards.
The principle of altruism is also an important principle of ethics that acts as a reference when taking a moral action.
According to Nagel (1970), the book, The Possibility of Altruism, explains the word ÂaltruismÊ as an attitude or act that pleases others, benefits and is considerate of others.
Therefore, an altruist is a generous person or a philanthropist. Nagel also mentioned that in order to become altruistic, an individual must also have empathy (the ability to place oneself in anotherÊs position); and be open, trusting, and tolerant and accepting of others.
Frankena (1973) reported ButlerÊs view on altruism, that sometimes an individual demands satisfaction not for himself but for others. It might be seen as self- sacrifice but according to psychological egoists, a person may derive satisfaction from doing things for others. Therefore, it is in their self-interest.
In contrast, altruists believe that humans only desire to perform actions that benefit others. Although justice and altruism are the main principles in ethics, there are differences between them; justice is a rational thing (acts, behaviour and actions), while altruism is an extraordinary human attribute.
However, these two principles are the basis of other moral values, like honesty, hard work and soon. It is these values that enable a person to act more efficiently and effectively when facing an extraordinary situation, like in a moral dilemma.
6.3.2 Situational Ethics
Sometimes, in a certain situation, an individual needs to make decisions and act according to the situation he is in. Grassian (1981) reported views and examples given by Fletcher, who opposed the three approaches used for some problems and to make moral decisions. The three approaches are: legalism, antinomianism and situationism. According to Fletcher (in Grassian, 1981), a person who uses a situational approach:
Â⁄enters into every decision-making situation fully armed⁄with ethical maxims⁄and he treats them with respect as illuminators of his problems just the same he is prepared in any situation to compromise them or set them aside in the situation if love seems better served by doing so.Ê
Ethical maxims here mean ethical rules or principles used to overcome problems based on certain situations. However, Fletcher did not explain further on the rules or principles used in certain situations, like the example given in his book. The example was about an abortion case in the early 1960s.
According to Grassian, he supported the decision of the pregnant woman, but those opposing the actions also give the reason of loving concern for the unborn foetus. From this example, we find that a situation taken based on a situation can be controversial, depending on whether the principles of ethics used are suitable or not. Therefore, this matter reverts to the same question of whether ethics of principles or ethics of situations need to be prioritised in solving moral dilemmas.
Most moral educators favour the use of the ethics of principles to the ethics of situations. They claim that making decisions based on ethics of situation is too desperate and there is a risk of making inaccurate and controversial decisions. However, we can summarise here that a person can make decisions and take moral actions in a moral problem by considering the situation that causes the problems and based on basic principles and moral values within himself.
ACTIVITY 6.6
Can you list the differences between principlistic morals and situational morals?