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activity or on learning and accomplishing work-related tasks. Contributions from various fields are subject to this framework, fit into it, and coordinate with it (Barrow et al., 2010; Bruner, 1996; Litzinger and al., 2011; Prideaux, 2000; Watermeyer, 2011).

Method

The training approach for a program based on this vision starts with planning the learning and teaching outcomes. The resulting plan (schematic diagram) generally specifies the:

 Main stages in the training, i.e., a semester, or more often, a year

 Outcomes to achieve at the end of each stage—in relation to the broad outcomes expected at the end of the training—from the following angles:

 Modes and patterns of thought, action and conduct the students must integrate, and what precisely they can accomplish by using them

 Development to a certain degree of cross-disciplinary tools for thought, action and conduct, and how students can put them to use

 Tasks that students can carry out and related performance criteria

 Key learning objects in each course and the scope and limitations of their integration and utilization

 Links between courses in the same stage and in different stages

 Activities that promote integration personally and professionally, combining what is learned in the various courses

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Planning is aimed at developing training that is as coherent as possible and that is well adapted to the students’ characteristics and to the broad expected outcomes. A coherent program is one in which courses, teaching, and learning and assessment activities are selected, situated, designed, and intertwined in such a way that they allow for the deepening and continuous integration of learning, optimize student development, and maximize opportunities and degree of achievement of the broad expected outcomes (Ambrose, 2010; Beane, 1995; Hubball and Burt, 2004; Hubball and Gold, 2007; Oliver et al., 2008; Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988; Stark and Lattuca 1997).

Within the same stage of a program, the approach is to bring training components together and combine, structure, and integrate learning (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988). Analyzing a major theme, examining similar phenomena from different angles, performing a work-related function or carrying out certain program-related tasks bridges the gap between courses and serves as an anchor for structured integration.

From one stage to the next, students are called on to deepen their learning, enrich their resources, consolidate their skills and abilities, and enhance their ability to use them. From this point of view, the program of study enables students to achieve the broad expected outcomes of the training (Thijs and van den Akker, 2009). In a spiral curriculum, for example, the learning objects are revisited, examined in more depth, compared, integrated, and used more and more fully and at increasingly complex levels from one stage to the next until the broad training outcomes are achieved (Barrow et al., 2010; Bruner, 1996; Dixon, Clark and DiBiasio, 2000; Howard, 2007; Sheppard et al., 2009). In this approach to training, programs of study are considered as living and learning environments. Particular attention is paid to creating a friendly and productive environment: places to meet, discuss, and give feedback among students and with teachers; comfortable, well-sited work areas; and easy and continuous access to training resources.

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Impact

The impacts of this training approach have been studied very little, probably because it is still

recent and not yet widely implemented outside the fields of health and engineering and

because work has focused on the approach’s foundations as well as on the methods and conditions leading to its adoption, implementation, and use in managing programs of study. Ambrose (2010) assserts that it motivates students to progress and develop, intensifies their learning, and boosts their confidence in the quality and efficacy of their training and their

sense of control over their learning. Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) indicate that this

approach informs students about what aspects of their learning they need to improve and encourages them to progress through voluntary training activities. A number of authors consider that it should lead to more in-depth, better integrated learning that is more easily deployed in a manner that is better adapted to the situation in hand (Bransford et al., 2000; Greeno, Collins and Resnick, 1996; Howard, 2007; Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988.) Studies in the United States on the impact of such an approach in primary and secondary schools (see, for example, Newmann et al., 2001) demonstrate its positive effects on student development and academic success.

Other effects, related to how training is conducted and how programs of study are managed, are frequently mentioned:

 The precise, and at the same time, comprehensive vision that each teacher who

participates in the training may have of the program, what its outcomes are, and

what is expected, taught, learned, implemented, and evaluated at each stage in the training and in each course

 The use of training plans as a framework for evaluating and continuously improving

the program of study or managing misunderstandings about the role, scope, and limitations of a course in the program

 Reduced likelihood of the course requirements being lowered, the training outcomes being preempted, or the course purpose being gradually and involuntarily strayed from.

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Fourth component

_{consistent with this vision and} Designing learning activities that are

approach

Issue

Students develop their understanding, their cognitive and practical skills, and their thinking, behavioral, and situational abilities through learning activities that are relevant, significant, and motivating (Ambrose et al. 2010; Biggs, 2003; Knight, 2003; Lesh et al., 2000; Litzinger, 2011; Pintrich, 2003).