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Prior to the mid nineteenth century collections were mainly in the hands of royal families and the bourgeoisie with access restricted to selected guests and those whom the owners wished to impress through their wealth and knowledge

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(Waterfield 1991, p.18). Nikolaus Pevsner (1976) examines the typological influence of the designs of interiors dedicated to the display of individual

collections. He observes that the term ‘museum’ as a way of describing a building to house a collection in the contemporary context, dates back to references in the writings of Paolo Giovio in 1539; with the word being inscribed on his building at Como in 1543. This was a private collection but the internal layout of the area for display consisted of a large central space with smaller rooms around three sides.

Pevsner considers the use of classical architectural devices such as columns and colonnades, as well as tunnel-vaulting (also referred to as barrel vaulting) and top lit areas being utilised to display art and artefacts. This signifies the early

deliberations of a conscious decision on the effect of light and space on the display of objects. As early collectors observed the display of other individual’s collections spaces were developed and designed specific to the needs of the collections. Pevsner (1976, p.113) cites the influence of the display gallery of the Dutch painter Ruben’s collection of sculptures on his patron the Earl of Arundel and his subsequent building of Arundel House as a repository for his own collection. Pevsner (1976) observes that through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the inclusion of a gallery space became a common element of palace design and by the eighteenth century a systematic taxonomy, organising the art and artefacts contained within these spaces, was also being adopted by many collectors.

An early influence on the design of museum and galleries throughout the

nineteenth century was the 1802-1805 work of French theorist Durand (Searing 1986, pp.16-18). His published museum plans influenced the layout of many of the century’s most important museum and gallery buildings and offered a complete

“monumental” scheme or one that could be used in part according to the scale of

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the building project (Searing 1986, p.16). The development of Enlightenment theories in the eighteenth century also influenced the design of the buildings and the public access to them (Pevsner 1976, p.115).

The Enlightenment movement in the UK and Europe sought to improve the human condition through the challenging of the traditional authorities and the implementation of change (History.com 2009). In terms of gallery and museum design development Pevsner (1976) considers that this translated into the first opening of public galleries such as the Kessel Museum, Fridericianum (opened 1777). He cites this example as being ‘transitional’ (p.115) in that it incorporated elements of the outgoing Baroque and of the incoming classical style. Pevsner (1976, p.115) notes that this classical style with its use of pillars, pediments and porticos was directly influenced by ancient Greece and Rome. These were destinations on the Grand Tour that many aspiring artists, architects and high class gentlemen would undertake. The English Palladian style was also

influential. Pevsner (1976, p.116) states that an early example of Neo-Classicism in England would be Newby Hall where, in the late 1760’s three rooms were added, designed by Robert Adams. The central circular room had natural light from above and niches for statues, whilst the two wings were rectangular in form.

This was a private gallery/museum but was influential in the development of museum and gallery design.

The Neo-Classical style,most prevalent in the UK, Paris and Rome (Pevsner 1976, p.118), was further advanced by the influence of architectural competitions with the theme of museum design at the latter part of the eighteenth century and the early nineteenth century. The designs submitted offer evidence of a recognised emerging Neo-Classical style with a layout based on a quadrangle, often

encapsulating a Greek cross, or an ‘H’ with a central area, often domed, with main

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galleries leading off and smaller, adjoining rooms. Pevsner (1976, p.121) refers to Durand’s ‘Precis des Lecons’ (1802-1809) and illustrates how considered museum and gallery design had become in terms of the relationship between content and architecture.

In the UK the British Museum, opened in 1759 at Montagu House, was unique in that at the time all of the artefacts that it contained were purchased by the

government for the public rather than the products of royal collections or military campaigns. Whilst this museum was open to the public from its inception,

admission was by ticket only and strictly limited allowing the authorities to be selective in who they admitted. In 1810 the museum allowed free entry to all on selected days. The current museum was constructed on its original Montagu House site between 1823 and 1857 designed by Sir Robert Smirke and based on a quadrangle design. The main entrance, the southern wing, is an example of the Greek influence on Neo-Classical architecture. It combines forty-four 45’ high Ionic columns, with a pediment decorated with ‘The Progress of Civilisation’ sculpture by Sir Richard Westmacott over the main entrance. On entering the building, the visitor went into the great hall with its grand staircase from whence all parts could be navigated through interlinking galleries. The Round Reading Room designed by Sydney Smirke was added in the central courtyard (1854 – 1857).

This new style of architecture being adopted and developed for museum and gallery design also coincided with a change in collecting, organisation and display with a renewed interest in ancient sculpture (Pevsner 1976, p.123). The

importance of natural light was recognised, particularly for galleries, with top lighting an effective method given that windows were omitted to maximise the display area and minimise damage to the objects within. As collections expanded

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the scale of the buildings reflected the areas needed for display, and the Neo-Classical designs lent themselves to the scale of the building required.

In ‘The Birth of the Museum’ Bennett (1995) comments on the interior structures of these buildings

Their internal architecture instituted a new set of relations between space and vision in which the public could not only see the exhibits arranged for its inspection but could, at the same time, see and be seen by itself, thus placing an architectural restraint on any insolent tendency to rowdiness (p.100).

Bennett (1995) compares the museums and art galleries to the reform institutions and the newly introduced department stores with their walkways, elevated

balconies and directed promenades. These are a way of controlling the visitors through regulation of watching and being watched; they “combine the functions of spectacle and surveillance” (p.65). They were also seen as a way of regulating behaviour by offering an alternative to the gin palaces, ale houses and fairs which were the entertainment of those from the lower classes and viewed by the

governments of the day as the breeding grounds of revolution and undesirable behaviour due to the influence of the alcohol consumed and the ungoverned gathering of the masses. Referring to the 1835/36 select committee Duncan (1995) states

Most of its members were convinced that art galleries, museums and art schools, if properly organised, could be instruments of social change capable of strengthening social order (p.43).

This was regulation through education and is evidence of the links between art education and the museums and art galleries. This is further evidenced by

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Romans (2005) who observes that “Many were convinced that the diffusion of knowledge among the lower classes promoted temperance” (p.47).

Another significant building in the UK is the Dulwich Picture Gallery 1814,

designed by Sir John Soane [fig.1 p.56; fig.2 p.56]. Although private, in that it was the first independent gallery building, it consists of five variable sized, vaulted, interlinked rooms, all top lit and small rooms or ‘cabinets’ off and a mausoleum at the rear of the building for the owners of the original collections and the museum’s benefactor; with alms houses flanking it. The five interlinked rooms have large open arch openings in the adjoining walls so that whilst areas are separated the view down the length of the building remains unimpeded (Pevsner 1976, p.123).

Waterfield (1991) observes that in England the arrangement of cabinet rooms was unusual, the National Gallery proposals (1866) suggesting that this style of

arrangement had a “wearisome effect” (p.28); this view would re-emerge in the 1920s. Searing (1986) comments on the design of the use of the natural light at Dulwich:

……illuminated from above by an innovative system of monitor lighting.

Light enters through clerestory windows set in the vault rather than directly through a skylight, and the intensity of the sun’s rays is thereby tempered (p.16).

Between 1815 and 1830 the Munich Glyptothek designed by Leo von Klenze was constructed. This building commissioned by the Crown Prince of Bavaria (later Ludwig I) was always intended to be a public building although the inclusion of state rooms within the museum suggest that the old feudal order still had an influence (Pevsner 1976, p.124). The external design of this museum is a mix of Greek influenced portico with eight Ionic columns and

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Figure 1 Dulwich Picture Gallery

Figure 2 Dulwich Picture Gallery: plan (circa 1811)

[Image available: Nevola, F. (2000) Soane’s favourite subject. London: Dulwich Picture Gallery. p.63]

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Renaissance style plain, windowless walls to either side each having three canopied niches (aedicule) for the display of statues. The design of the interior opened up an interesting debate. Pevsner (1976, p.124) observes that Ludwig was

corresponding with Johann Martin Wagner, a painter, sculptor and archaeologist who lived in Rome. Wagner made recommendations regarding the arrangement of

the exhibits in terms of room size and taxonomy and suggested that the interior space of the museum should be simple and unadorned. In 1816 Wagner suggested that the skill of the architect is that the building is appropriate to its

function, and that utility is of more importance than beauty; he suggests that

“polished marble walls and floors are an attraction only for the common rabble”

Pevsner (1976, p.126).

One of the earliest examples of the classical monumental style of urban museum building is Schinkel’s Altes Museum, Berlin (1823-30) [fig.3 p.58; fig.4 p.58]

. ....the site required a very monumental building. Therefore I preferred one giant order rather than two individual expressions for the two main stories....The building surrounded on all sides by the Ionic entablature or the Ionic columnar hall, with Ionic pilasters at the four corners, forms a simple yet grand main structure into which the two floors are inserted in a subordinate manner (Snodin 1991, p.1).

The Altes design consists of a rectangular form of four wings surrounding an inner courtyard with a central rotund. Schinkel referred to the rotund as the inner

sanctuary hinting to the influence of Greek temple design (Pevsner 1976, p.127).

This influence is further reinforced by the front of the building which addresses a large open square and consists of an outer square angled pier at each end containing eighteen fluted Ionic columns. Searing (1986, p.23) remarks

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Figure 3 Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany [Photo available:

<https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Altes_Museum.jpg>]

Figure 4 Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany: plan.

[Image available: <https://igarciasimon.wordpress.com/karl-friedrich-schinkel-1781-1841/>]

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on the importance of the position of this building and comments that “the architect also took note of the surrounding city and established this portion of Berlin as a precinct for the arts.” McClellan (2008, p.66) also acknowledges the importance of the museum’s position facing an open square “Schinkel moved conversation to the threshold between collection and city, implying an enlarged civic role for the

museum within the body politic”. Pevsner (1976, p.127) observers that some commentators considered that The Altes museum may have influenced the design of the British Museum. He contests this with evidence that Smirk had already designed the façade of the British Museum in 1823, even though it was not

constructed until later in the build. There is, in fact, evidence in the construction of The Altes to suggest the influence of English building techniques, as following a visit to England to study museum buildings in 1826 Schinkel incorporated cast iron and English fireproof construction methods into his design. There are no external windows in The Altes design as a way of maximising the internal wall space but there are two storeys. The ground floor was designed for the display of sculpture.

The upper floor is accessed by the double staircase situated within the entrance hall, one leading off to the right and the other to the left, designed for the display of paintings. On both floors the rooms interlink allowing the exhibits to be displayed in a chronological order according to classification, and observed seamlessly. The idea of flow had been established and was now part of a common requisite for museum and gallery design. Again there was much debate as to how the painting should be displayed and classified. Eventually in 1830 Wagner was appointed director of the museum and Schinkel and Wagner arranged the pictures according to a criterion which they established, based on the historic period represented and the quality of work.

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Figure 5 Alte Pinakothek

[Photo available: <https://www.pinakothek.de/en>]

Figure 6 Alte Pinakothek: plan.

[Image available:

<https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alte_Pinakothek_Munich_plan_1.jpg>]

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Schinkel designed frames for the paintings that represented the period in which they were painted and advocated the procuring of copies of works to fill gaps in the historic sequence. According to Wagner’s theories the galleries were

unadorned to avoid distracting the viewer of the exhibit and detracting from the exhibits themselves (Pevsner 1976, pp.128-129).

Following the opening of Alte Pinakothek in 1836 [fig.5 and fig.6 p.60] designed by Klenze, the High Renaissance style of architecture also became influential on museum and gallery design during the nineteenth century. This style is based on the ancient Roman forms used for temples and monumental buildings and Klenze was influenced in his choice of style by a visit to Italy in 1823 (Pevsner 1976, p.129). It was commissioned by Ludwig I for his large collection of art. Whilst Klenze used this architectural style for the exterior and the principal rooms of the interior, its layout was his own:

Where Klenze however did not follow any precedent of the past is in the plan of the building. The Pinakothek is twenty-five bays long from west to east but quite narrow with, in addition, wings at the ends projecting slightly to north and south (Pevsner 1976, p.129).

The building consists of two floors with the lower floor providing storage, a print room and a library and the upper floor being used for public display. It was

innovative in that each of the twenty-five bays was divided into three parallel strips.

The larger middle area took advantage of the skylight to illuminate the larger paintings. The north strip was used for cabinets and smaller paintings in the window area. The southern strip consisted of an interlinked gallery or loggia 400 feet long in the form of “a lavish vaulted corridor of twenty-five bays” (Pevsner 1976, p.129) which allowed access to all areas on the floor and displayed art from

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Italian painting at the east/north end and northern painting at the west/south end.

The design and layout was influenced by Raphael and his paintings occupied the central bay. The use of the three parallel areas was originally suggested by Johann George con Dillis, it was its use in the context of this building which

became influential on many subsequent designs. Waterfield (1991, p.19) suggests the Uffiz, the Museo Pio-Clementino, The Altes Museum and the Alte Pinakolek, became the typological foundation of subsequent British examples.

Pevsner (1976, p.130) observes that the second half of the nineteenth century witnessed the prolific expansion of the number of museums and art galleries being built. He states that in the UK there were fifty-nine museums in 1850 but that by 1914 there were an additional two hundred and ninety-five. He mirrors this expansion with that on the continent and in the USA. Part of the reason for this expansion was due to a changing attitude as to what could be exhibited. Prior to this, with the exception of the South Kensington (V & A) museum, the established galleries were the preserve of artists and sculptors; those who created applied art such as ceramics, glass and metalwork could only exhibit at trade fairs up until the 1890s as the art establishment considered these craft activities and not suitable for exhibition in the gallery spaces. Social conditions and industrial pressure were also influencing factors, which were cause for Government debate from the early part of the nineteenth century.

In the UK in 1835 Parliament recognized the need for art and design education to improve the products of industry. The 1835/6 Select Committee title was to

‘Enquire into the best means of extending knowledge of the Arts and the principles of Design among the people, especially the manufacturing population of the

country.’ Their investigations considered why, despite Britain being at the forefront of the manufacturing technologies through the industrial revolution, the items being

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produced were being overtaken by European competition. Ashwin (1975) recognises that following the cessation in 1815 of the Napoleonic War, French industry had recovered sufficiently and was supported by the state-subsidized education, to enable the exporting of desirable products:

....and the French were seen to excel with products which paid more attention to quality of design than to quantity and economy, the predominant British criteria (p.8).

Romans (2005) observes the intention of the committee:

It was insistent that a ‘national taste’ was to be achieved in part through access to museums and exhibitions, and also through the instruction of

‘young men’ in the principals of ‘correct drawing from the antique (p.51).

Arts education in this context was through the attendance of classes that were available through the museums and galleries or through simply observing the exhibits which were selected for display. The start of the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901) was a time of marked class differences with an undercurrent of civil unrest. (Romans 2005, p.56; Schama 2002, pp178-192). Duncan (1994) states of the select committee that:

Reforming politicians were not only concerned with the utilitarian benefits of art. They also believed that culture and fine arts could improve and enrich the quality of national life (p.43).

That by learning about art either through visiting the museums and galleries or through a more formal education, individuals would be influenced in matters of taste and diverted from their often mundane and severe existence.

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By 1837 The School of Design in London had been established, this represents the earliest form of publically funded education and was aimed at breaching the gap between production methods and the finesse of the finished articles. At this time ‘taste’ was taught through the use of classical examples:

……there was an overwhelming desire to, as it were ‘pin taste down’- in brief this involved connecting it with what was perceived to be the

perennial values of antiquity (Romans 2005, p.44).

The art schools were linked to the local galleries and museums, who at this time exhibited what was defined as fine art and classical forms; these could be

observed and studied by the students. Swift (2005, p.69) remarks that some

observed and studied by the students. Swift (2005, p.69) remarks that some