Inequidad en la educación

The majority of research studies reviewed in this section are exploratory, with many studies conducted within artificial environments devoid of the real contingencies and situational factors one would find in real commercial gambling environments. Not only are there just a handful of studies available, but also there is an overwhelming need for the findings to be replicated before it is possible to conclude confidently and specifically from the observed findings. In summary, the available literature base surrounding the effect of event frequency, duration and payout interval on gambling behaviour is in its infancy, and there is a long way to go before the individual effects of specific speed-related variables on gambling behaviour are determined. Nevertheless, recognising these caveats, there are some consistent trends worth exploring with respect to minimising gambling-related harm and these are described below (see Table 1 for a summary of key points).

Table 1. Summary of Key Points of Speed and Event Frequency Frequent Betting

Opportunities Facilitate Detachment Needs

Continuous or frequent games are ‘always there’ when you need to use it as a means of escape or mood modification. This is not helpful IF the gambling is causing harm.

High Event Frequency Facilitates Escalation of Gambling

A gambling activity with virtually unlimited opportunity to play will make chasing of losses easier.

Behavioural Learning and Rapid Feedback

The quicker the feedback the more reinforcing. This is not about reward but feedback, as a player may be told they have won but not immediately get the reward.

Player Response to Rapid Reward and Rapid Punishment

Problem gamblers tend to over-react to wins and losses in contrast to non- problem gamblers. Fast games give more opportunity for a) reward and b) punishment, and both can motivate persistent gambling.

High Event Frequency and Limited Scope for Decision- Making

Post-Event Reflection - A short pause after the result of the bet seems to reduce persistent gambling (different than slow ‘feedback’).

Autoplay - Lack of (physical) interaction, such as even pressing a button, reduces likelihood of mental engagement and evaluation of whether to keep going or not.

In-Running Betting - Made a discontinuous form of gambling continuous, and therefore open to same problems as EGMs etc.

Payout Interval

Rapid Provision of Monetary Rewards - Getting paid out quicker is more reinforcing. However, it’s not crucial because the arousal felt after a win also reinforces the behaviour even if it’s going to take you several days to receive the money.

Automatically Adding Monetary Rewards to Total - Quick games paid out quickly are harder for players to track (for e.g., simple accounting of wins, losses, current rate of reward etc.). When it is not paid out as money, and just tacked onto a constantly fluctuating on-screen total, it becomes even harder to transparently see what’s going on (beyond simple net loss).

5.8.1 Fast, frequent and continuous games are more likely to facilitate problematic play

Gambling activities that can provide monetary reward in the immediate future are more attractive to problem gamblers than those where there is a delay between winning and

receiving reward. Moreover, gambling activities that have a brief event duration are highly reinforcing to problem gamblers even if they delay the provision of monetary rewards, because the notification of the gambling outcome itself is also inherently rewarding. Therefore, in general, it is reasonable to conclude that gambling activities with high event frequency are more attractive to problem gamblers because reward (of some description) is delivered relatively quickly in contrast to other forms of gambling. Thus, such games are likely to encourage more problematic play because the behaviour has been strongly reinforced either through winning, or the rapid delivery of exciting feedback informing the player whether they have won or lost.

Gambling activities with very high event frequency and rapid feedback regarding outcome can be described as continuous forms of gambling, given that one can gamble with minimal delay between individual events. The implication of continuous betting is that gamblers can be exposed to virtually unlimited opportunities to gamble, in contrast to sports betting for example, which is dependent upon the list of pre-determined fixtures.

There are several potential risk factors for gambling-related harm associated with rapid, continuous forms of gambling. For instance, evidence indicates that being able to gamble immediately after the outcome of the previous bet is revealed can reduce the opportunity for reflection and fully engaged decision-making regarding the consequences of previous gambling and the likely effects of further gambling. Furthermore, rapid and continuous forms of gambling, ceteris paribas, are associated with a higher rate of loss (see Section 5 for implications for cost of play). This in turn can encourage further gambling participation as the higher rate of loss increases the probability of the player experiencing negative emotions and anxiety in response to losses, and therefore increasing the need and motivation to chase and recoup losses. In addition, rapid and continuous forms of gambling also facilitate emotionally reactive, persistent and escalating gambling engagement, because of the virtually unlimited opportunity to gamble on such products. This is particularly the case with

gambling activities that are less likely to be subject to regulatory restrictions with respect to operating hours or that operate through more accessible channels such as the Internet. Essentially, persistent gambling in the face of accumulating monetary losses is predictive of gambling-related harm, and rapid, continuous forms of gambling encourage this behaviour. There are implications to consider here in relation to In-Running Sports Betting and

Autoplay Functions. Essentially, the opportunity to bet continuously throughout a sporting event via the In-Running option has transformed online sports betting (and offline sports betting to a lesser extent) from a lower event frequency gambling activity to a potentially continuous form of gambling. In addition, the opportunity to engage in Autoplay where the player can abdicate the opportunity to make future bets in response to evaluation of the previous gambling outcome, erodes scope for the player to make fully considered gambling decisions for each individual gambling event. Research indicates that when players are forced to have even a very brief pause after the outcome of the previous bet, they are less likely to engage in persistent gambling. Therefore, both In-Running Sports Betting and Autoplay Functions may have inadvertently increased the potential for players to experience gambling related harm.

5.8.2 Further opportunity for detachment needs

With rapid and continuous forms of gambling there is further opportunity to engage in gambling to obtain non-monetary goals such as detachment. Rapid, continuous games are believed to be more conducive to achieving states of detachment which gamblers may find

valuable as means of avoidant coping (i.e., ‘temporary escape’), rest or tension reduction. Using gambling for detachment is not automatically problematic; however, being motivated to gamble as a way of coping with dysphoric and anxious mental states has been consistently linked to gambling-related harm in the research literature. Essentially, if one values the experience and psychological state created from gambling as a way of escaping negative mood states, it is more likely that they will continue to gamble despite incurring losses. Indeed, it is possible for players to accumulate significant monetary losses as they use

gambling for detachment needs, whereas it is probable that there are more adaptive and less harmful strategies for rest, recovery and coping. Ultimately, gambling activities with high event frequency and wide availability are always at hand for players with detachment needs in comparison to gambling activities with less opportunity to participate.

5.9 Recommendations

n The Autoplay function available on electronic forms of gambling is, by default, not likely to support informed decision-making during gambling sessions. Therefore, it is recommended that consideration is given to placing further restrictions, or the removal of autoplay functions, within gambling products.

n Participation in In-Running Sports Betting has been repeatedly linked to gambling- related harm. Aside from research demonstrating a clear association between participation and harm, there is very little research available that explains the relationship, and more importantly whether in-running betting is a causal factor for harm. This is a priority area for future research.

n Promising explorative research has indicated that enforcing a relatively brief pause after the bet outcome before a player can continue gambling is promising, and indeed there is strong theoretical support for its effectiveness. However, this research is in its infancy, and before regulatory changes are proposed it is important for this finding to be demonstrated firstly in replication studies, and secondly in real gambling environments with real gambling contingencies that are difficult to replicate in the laboratory.

n Rapid and continuous forms of gambling are often associated with gambling-related harm; therefore, it is recommended that specific attention is given to such forms of gambling when it comes to developing and trialling mechanisms for harm

minimisation. There is significant opportunity and motivation for persistent play, and because of the theoretical rate of loss associated with games with rapid turnover there is potential to incur significant losses in a short space of time. Fundamentally, because rapid, continuous games have been shown to be highly immersive and associated with persistent problematic play it is recommended that research focuses on developing effective forms of pre-commitment and mandatory breaks in play that are coupled with appropriate self-appraisal messages. Easily over-ridden self-imposed limits or very brief and infrequent pauses in play are not likely to address the problem because they do not require the player to stand back and dispassionately evaluate whether it is in their best interest to continue

gambling. Given the probable psychological state of a player who is aroused and emotionally charged in response to the rapid turnover and potential rate of loss, this will likely inhibit calm and informed decision-making.

n Modifying game speed as a harm minimisation strategy is also a possibility.

However, this strategy is challenging because a simple reduction in game speed or event frequency may negatively impact game play. For example, by reducing wheel spin speed in virtual roulette from 20 seconds to 40 seconds, it is possible that the game will be less appealing and may encourage product substitution. Further research should examine options for reducing game speed or event frequently while also attempting to maintain the appeal of the game. For example, enhancing graphics to better replicate a real casino environment (e.g., the step-by-step replication of a croupier taking the bets, then spinning the roulette wheel and finally paying out bets) could slow down the game and may eliminate boredom. These are illustrative examples only, and clearly detailed consideration of the potential options along with trialing impacts are required. The substantive point is that speed should not be dismissed outright as a potential means to modify cost of pay without closer inspection.

n Some game content offers options to considerably increase the speed of play either using a ‘stop reels button’ or by enabling ‘turbo mode’. Careful consideration should be given to whether players should be able to speed up an already rapid and continuous form of gambling.

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REWARD CHARACTERISTICS