Of central relevance to the woman in the Laudatio Turiae was her position within the familia. She was probably very young, but she could take legal action on her own because she was a citizen sui iuris. What does that mean? An overview of some relevant works in the field give the following translations of sui iuris: ‘in their own power’10, ‘in his own right’, 11 ‘under his own
authority’12, ‘those who were (legally) independent’.13 This legal independence is further
explained by Gardner with the remark that ‘the entire responsibility for action on behalf of the
familia and for prosecutions both civil and criminal, lay with the individual sui iuris’.14 Finally,
Buckland defines sui iuris as ‘in no familia but his own’.15
All these translations emphasise in a way the independence of the citizen sui iuris: he or she was not subordinate to someone else and could take legal action. His or her own power or own right was based on the position of the citizen sui iuris as the head of the familia. Whether this familia consisted of only the citizen sui iuris or of other people as well was irrelevant: the simple point that a Roman citizen was not in the power of another citizen made him or her into a citizen sui iuris and, therefore, into a head of a familia. The most fundamental definition, therefore, is Buckland’s: the citizen sui iuris is the head of his or her own familia.
Defining the citizen sui iuris as the head of a familia calls for an explanation. At first sight, it seems very close to the definition of a pater familias as ‘head of a family’ which is used in some Latin dictionaries.16 These definitions, however, presume a modern western concept of
family and it remains to be seen whether the Roman familia can be equated to these modern concepts.17 For this reason, I will not translate the term familia but I will try to identify what
Romans seem to have understood by it in this section.
To see the citizen sui iuris as the head of a familia may seem like a very legalistic way of looking at the subject, and, in a way, a step backwards from the recent research into ancient family life. Familia is sometimes portrayed as an unchangeable legal fiction, and placed almost in opposition to the prevailing western uses of the word family. This view is most forcefully promoted by Gardner.18 She devoted a book to the interrelation of family and familia, which is
mainly concerned with citizens either joining or leaving the familia.19 For Gardner, the familia is
the family group under the authority of the male pater familias.20
10 Crook (1967a) 35; Saller (1994) 76.
11 Kaser (1971) 58: ‘eigenen Rechtes’, Hin (2013) 272.
12 Kaser (1971) 58n5: ‘[sui iuris] scheint von der Vorstellung einer Gewalt an der eigenen Person auszugehen’. 13 Johnston (1999) 30; Saller (1994) 183; Gardner (1993) 3; Hin (2013) 272.
14 Gardner (1993) 186. 15 Buckland (1963) 101.
16 For example in Lewis and Short, Cassel’s and the Oxford Latin Dictionary.
17 See Saller (1984a) 337 for a critique on the definitions of familia used in dictionaries. 18 Gardner (2011) 362, cf. Gardner (1993) 52-84.
19 Gardner (1998).
Chapter 3.1 | the roman FamiLia
This definition is based on Digesta 50.16.196.2, which will be discussed below. A legal definition of familia can never cover the experience of family life for every Roman citizen, that is certainly true. However, I hope to show that the familia can be seen as more than a static and notional way of describing the Roman family in legal terms.
Gaius does not give an overview of the different meanings of familia in his Institutiones. His use of the term familia, however, does show that for him the familia meant a number of different things. The first is a group of related family members living under the authority of a
pater familias, as in the remark that a woman married with manus ‘would pass into her husband’s familia in the position of that of a daughter’.21 The second is property. In book 2 of the Institutiones,
Gaius remarks specifically that familia can mean patrimonium.22 Patrimonium, from patris munia,
‘matters/affairs of the pater familias’, can mean both property and a paternal inheritance, patrimony.23 In this instance, patrimonium was used to denote the property of the familia which
could be inherited.24
A third meaning of familia is a body of slaves in the possession of one owner, as mentioned in the remark that citizens in certain condition may free their entire familia of slaves.25 A possible
fourth meaning is patrilineage, a group of persons who could trace their descent through the male line to a common ancestor. The references to patrilineage are, however, ambivalent. For example, when Gaius remarks that ‘the Senate is not thinking of descendants of patrons who are in another
familia’, this could refer either to a different family group under the authority of another pater familias, or to a different patrilineage.26
The ambivalences show how difficult it sometimes is to distinguish between the different meanings of the word familia, especially between that of ‘family under a pater familias’ and that of ‘patrilineage’. Whether the Romans also had problems distinguishing between these different meanings remains an open question. It was probably not always necessary to tell them apart. Interestingly, the meaning of familia which is used the most is that of property (patrimonium). This meaning is also the most clearly identifiable. However, the use of familia in the sense of ‘property’ within the Institutiones is limited to discussions about inheritance. Furthermore, the fact that this is the only use of familia for which an explanation was deemed necessary could mean that it was not a use which was familiar to most Romans.27 Both the meaning of ‘property’
21 Gaius, Institutiones 1.111: in familiam viri transibat filiaeque locum optinebat. Translation Gordon and Robinson (1988), adapted for ‘position of that of’. For this type of marriage, the so-called manus marriage see paragraph 3.2. Cf. Gaius, Institutiones 2.137.
22 Gaius, Institutiones 2.102.
23 Definitions of patrimonium in Brill’s New Pauly and Lewis and Short Latin dictionary. Patrimonium as property is mentioned in Gaius, Institutiones 1.33, 2.1, 2.102, 2.224-226 and 3.42.
24 Property did not only mean goods, but also any unfree people who were part of the familia, like slaves and citizens in bondage. Familia in the sense of ‘property and patrimonium’ is found in Gaius, Institutiones 2.102, 2.103-106, 2.109, 2.115, 2.116, 2.119, 2.121, 2.222, 2.149a.
25 Gaius, Institutiones 1.44. Cf. Gaius, Institutiones 4.72a.
26 Gaius, Institutiones 3.71: (…) quia senatus de his liberis patronorum nihil sentiat, qui aliam familiam sequerentur. Translation Gordon and Robinson (1988). Cf. Gaius, Institutiones 1.156, 1.195c.
27 Familia as property was rarely used outside legal discussions, according to Saller (1994) 75. However, see chapter 2.5 for a discussion about the use of the term pater familias for estate and slave owners.
and the meaning of ‘body of slaves’ imply that the concept of familia referred not only to family connections, but also to the authority over labour and over the management and distribution of property. In this sense, the familia was more than a group of related persons under one authority. It was also what Goody calls a ‘corporate group’: a group which shares common property and a common labour pool.28
Ulpian and the meaning of familia
A more exhaustive overview of the different meanings of familia was given by the third-century AD jurist Ulpian in his work on the Edict. This work did not survive, but Ulpian’s definition was taken over in chapter sixteen of book fifty of the Digesta, which was aptly named On the meaning
of expressions.29 The editors of the Digesta also added a fragment from Gaius work on the
provincial edict.30 Together, these two fragments give an overview of what familia meant
according to the Roman jurists in the second and third centuries AD. Modern definitions of the Roman familia are almost always based on Digesta 50.16.195, especially on fragment 50.16.195.2, which for example formed the basis of Gardner’s definition used above.31 The risk of using parts
of this definition, however, is that we lose the context and the consistency of Ulpian’s explanation. Therefore, it is worthwhile to mention them in full. Digesta 50.16.195 consists of a pretext and five fragments, while D50.16.196 has a pretext and one fragment. To start with the first pretext:
Digesta 50.16.195 pr: Ulpian, Edict, book 46. The use of a word in the masculine gender
is usually extended to cover both genders.32
The pretext of Digesta 50.16.195 refers to the origin of the fragment and makes an opening remark on the use of the masculine gender to cover both genders. Ulpian stresses that, although the tradition of legal texts (and the use of grammar in Latin) leads to a text written in the masculine gender, legal text normally cover the feminine as well. This pretext is one of a number of fragments in the Digesta which emphasises this point.33 One fragment also remarks that it is not desirable to
turn this around and to take term which specifically refers to women to include men.34
28 Goody (1990) 70-71, 78.
29 Digesta 50.16, De verborum significatione. Ulpian’s definition is fragment 195.
30 Digesta 50.16.196. Gaius work on the provincial edict in thirty books does not survive either, although fragments of this work survive in the Digesta.
31 See also Saller (1994) 75-80; Dixon (1992) 2-3; Bradley (1991) 3n4; Evans Grubbs (2002) .
32 Digesta 50.16.195 pr.: Ulpianus 46 ad ed. Pronuntiatio sermonis in sexu masculino ad utrumque sexum plerumque
porrigitur. Translation Watson (1985).
33 Other fragments which that make this point are: Digesta 50.16.152 (Gaius), Digesta 31.45.pr (Pomponius), 32.62 (Julian), 50.16.1 (Ulpian), 50.16.40.1 (Ulpian), 50.16.51 (Gaius), 50.16.52 (Ulpian) and 50.16.84 (Paul). All these jurists are from the second or third centuries AD.
Chapter 3.1 | the roman FamiLia
Ulpian’s remark is relevant to this study, because almost every Roman law text is written as if the subject is a man. This use of the masculine to cover both genders does not only emphasise the preponderance of the masculine form in Roman law and grammar, but it also tends to make the role of Roman women in law texts almost invisible.35
Only when women are specifically mentioned can we be sure that a certain rule is relevant to women only. In all other cases we have to assume that both women and men were meant, although the use of the term ‘plerumque’ (‘usually’ or ‘generally’) by Ulpian serves as a warning that this may not always be the case. When it was obvious to the Romans themselves that something could only refer to men they did not specifically exclude women, for example when the power of a father over his offspring is discussed. In the case of Digesta 50.16.195, we may assume that Ulpian’s emphasis on inclusion of women means that women are included in the following definition of familia.
Digesta 50.16.195.1. Let us consider how the designation of familia is understood. And
indeed it is understood in various ways; for it relates both to things and to persons: to things, as, for instance, in the Law of the Twelve Tables in the words “let the nearest agnate have the familia”. The designation of familiae, however, refers to persons when the law speaks of patron and freedman: “from that familia” or “to that familia”; and here it is agreed that the law is talking of individual persons.36
In the first fragment, Ulpian draws a distinction between the use of familia as things (res) and as persons (personae). Familia in the meaning of res in this case is close to the definition we have seen in Gaius’ Institutiones: it denotes not only property, but all material and immaterial things within the familia. That this usage is old is emphasised by Ulpian by referring to its use in the Law of the Twelve Tables, the oldest Roman legal text, which was written down around 450 BC.37
Digesta 50.16.195.2. The designation of familiae relates also to any kind of body which
is covered by a legal status peculiar to its members or common to an entire related group. We talk of several persons as a familia under a peculiar legal status if they are naturally or legally subjected to the power of a single person as in the case of a pater
familias, a mater familias, a filius familias, a filia familias, and those who thereafter
35 Gardner (1995) 379. The preponderance of the masculine form in grammar is not something which is peculiar to Latin. This preponderance is still very much visible in the modern grammar in most languages, think of the word ‘man’ in English, which can mean both ‘male’ and ‘human being’. On grammar and gender see Unterbeck (2000) and Hellinger and Bussmann (2001-2003).
36 Digesta 50.16.195.1. ‘familiae’ appellatio qualiter accipiatur, videamus. et quidem varie accepta est: nam et in res et in
personas deducitur. in res, ut puta in lege duodecim tabularum his verbis ‘adgnatus proximus familiam habeto’. ad personas autem refertur familiae significatio ita, cum de patrono et liberto loquitur lex: ‘ex ea familia’, inquit, ‘in eam familiam’: et hic de singularibus personis legem loqui constat. Translation Watson (1985).
37 Crawford (1996) 555-721; Watson (1975).
follow them in turn, as, for instance, grandsons and granddaughters, and so on. Some- one is called pater familias if he holds sway in a house, and he is rightly called by this name even if he does not have a son; for we do not only mean his person but also a legal status; indeed, we can even call an orphan (pupillus) a pater familias. And when the pater familias dies, all the individuals who were subjected to him begin to hold their own familia for as individuals they enter into the category of pater familias. And the same will occur in the case of someone who is emancipated;38 for when he has
been made independent he has his own familia. We describe a familia consisting of all the agnates under a single legal rule for even if all of them have their own familiae after the pater familias has died, nonetheless, all of them who were under the power (potestas) of a single person will rightly be described as belonging to the same familia, since they belong to the same house and lineage (domo et gente).39
In this fragment, a familia is a group of persons who share the same legal status. Already in the first sentence, Ulpian refers to two types of groups which he discusses in the rest of the fragment. The first group comes closest to our modern concepts of nuclear and extended families. It is this meaning which is normally referred to when the Roman familia is discussed: a group of citizens under the patria potestas of a pater familias. All the elements of the family group are mentioned in Ulpian’s description. The potestas is created naturally or legally, naturally by the birth of children and grandchildren and legally, for example, by marriage or adoption. Furthermore, it is made explicit that the pater familias is a man, not only because of the use of the term pater, but also because his wife, the mater familias, is specifically mentioned. The people in his power are mentioned: his wife, sons and daughters, grandchildren etc. In the next sentence Ulpian writes that a man without children and even a pupillus, a ward who has not yet reached adulthood, can be a pater familias and, therefore, the head of his own, one-person,
familia. Here it is made clear that a pater familias is both a person in a specific situation and a
legal status. Ulpian continues by describing how potestas ends. When the pater familias dies, or when he takes legal action to emancipate them, the family members in his power become heads of familiae themselves.
38 Emancipatio means that a citizen alieni iuris is freed from patria potestas by legal means while the pater familias is alive. See chapter 3.2.
39 Digesta 50.16.195.2. Familiae appellatio refertur et ad corporis cuiusdam significationem, quod aut iure proprio
ipsorum aut communi universae cognationis continetur. iure proprio familiam dicimus plures personas, quae sunt sub unius potestate aut natura aut iure subiectae, ut puta patrem familias, matrem familias, filium familias, filiam familias quique deinceps vicem eorum sequuntur, ut puta nepotes et neptes et deinceps. pater autem familias appellatur, qui in domo dominium habet, recteque hoc nomine appellatur, quamvis filium non habeat: non enim solam personam eius, sed et ius demonstramus: denique et pupillum patrem familias appellamus. et cum pater familias moritur, quotquot capita ei subiecta fuerint, singulas familias incipiunt habere: singuli enim patrum familiarum nomen subeunt. idemque eveniet et in eo qui emancipatus est: nam et hic sui iuris effectus propriam familiam habet. communi iure familiam dicimus omnium adgnatorum: nam etsi patre familias mortuo singuli singulas familias habent, tamen omnes, qui sub unius potestate fuerunt, recte eiusdem familiae appellabuntur, qui ex eadem domo et gente proditi sunt. Translation Watson (1985).
Chapter 3.1 | the roman FamiLia
Ulpian ends with the introduction of a second, larger group of persons which is also called a familia. This is what we would call a patrilineage: the persons who were formerly under the power of a deceased pater familias.40 Despite the fact that after the death of the pater
familias his familia is split up, all the people in his power who become sui iuris are still considered
to be part of one familia. Kin originating from the same pater familias and related by blood (or a legal equivalent) through the male line are called agnates.
At first sight, Ulpian’s description in Digesta 50.16.195.2 is coherent and logically structured. However, this coherency has been reached by smoothing over some illogical elements. The most visible one is in his description of the mater familias. The situation described is archaic: as far as our sources can tell it seems that virtually no women were still in the power of their husbands in the third century AD. This was one of the main ambivalences of the position of a Roman woman within the familia: she lived in the household of her husband and as his wife was part of this family of procreation, but legally she was still a member of the
familia she grew up in, her family or orientation, until the death of her pater familias, when she
became a citizen sui iuris and the head of her own familia, independent from that of her hus- band.41 Another problem with this description is that Ulpian does not specify which persons in
power become the heads of their own familiae at the death of the pater familias.42 He also does
not make clear which children and grandchildren were in the power of the pater familias and whether a pater familias himself was part of his own familia.43 Lastly, there is a problem with