La influencia de la televisión sobre el desarrollo socio moral

Racismcan refer to any or all of the following beliefs and behaviors:

• race is the primary determinant of human capacities (prejudice or bias)

• a certain race is inherently superior or inferior to others (prejudice or bias)

• individuals should be treated differently according to their racial classification (prejudice or bias)

• the actual treating of individuals differently based on their racial classification (discrimination)

106 Xu, Xiaojing, Xiangyu Zuo, Xiaoying Wang, and Shihui Han. 2009. “Do You Feel My Pain? Racial Group Membership Modulates Empathic Neural Responses.” J. Neurosci. 29:8525-8529.

Racism

Figure 75 An African-American drinks out of a water cooler designated for use bycoloredpatrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City.

Racism is recognised by many as an affront to basic human dignity and a violation of human rights¹⁰⁷. Racism is opposed by almost all mainstream voices in the United States. A number of international treaties have sought to end racism. The United Nations uses a definition ofracist discriminationlaid out in theInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discriminationand adopted in 1965:

...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. source¹⁰⁸

18.5.1 Expressions of Racism

Racism may be expressed individually and consciously, through explicit thoughts, feelings, or acts, or socially and unconsciously, through institutions that promote inequalities amongraces.

Individual-Level Racism

Individual-level racism is prejudice, bias, or discrimination displayed in an interaction between two or more people. Examples of individual-level racism could include:

• a person believing people of other races/ethnicities are intellectually inferior and that the inferiority is a characteristic of the race

• a person holding the belief that all young African males are dangerous

• an employer firing someone because of his/her race

107 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/human%20rights 108 http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm

Children develop an awareness of race and racial stereotypes quite young (between the ages of 5 and 11) and these racial stereotypes affect behavior.¹⁰⁹ For instance, children who identify with a racial minority that is stereotyped as not doing well in school tend to not do well in school once they learn about the stereotype associated with their race.¹¹⁰Another illustration of individual-level racism in society is the resistance of Americans to classify mixed-race individuals as white if they have even

"one-drop" of black ancestry.¹¹¹ While most Americans may believe the "one-drop rule¹¹²" is no longer relevant in society today, recent research suggests that it persists in racial classifications, even if they are informal.

Structural Racism

Structuralracism refers to inequalities built into an organization or system. An example of struc-tural racism can be seen in recent research on workplace discrimination.¹¹³ There is widespread discrimination against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black."

These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names"

to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the country's long history of discrimination. This is an example of structural racism as it shows a widespread established belief system that treats people differently based upon their race. Additional examples of structural racism include apartheid¹¹⁴in South Africa, the system of Jim Crow¹¹⁵laws in the U.S., and the inequitable lending practices of banks (i.e., redlining¹¹⁶). The figure below illustrates structural racism by illustrating how blacks and Hispanics, even when they have the same income as whites, are less likely to be approved for home mortgages (as a result of practices like redlining).

109 McKown, Clark, and Michael J. Strambler. 2009. “Developmental Antecedents and Social and Academic Conse-quences of Stereotype-Consciousness in Middle Childhood.” Child Development 80:1643-1659.

110 McKown, Clark, and Michael J. Strambler. 2009. “Developmental Antecedents and Social and Academic Conse-quences of Stereotype-Consciousness in Middle Childhood.” Child Development 80:1643-1659.

111 Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Levin, D. T. & Banaji, M. R. (2011). Evidence for Hypodescent and Racial Hierarchy in the Categorization and Perception of Biracial Individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 492-506.

112 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-drop%20rule

113 Bertrand, Marianne and Mullainathan, Sendhil. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review, September 2004, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp. 991-1,013.

114 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/apartheid 115 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Crow 116 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/redlining

Racism

Figure 76

Cultural Racism

Cultural racial discrimination, a variation of structural racism, occurs when the assumption of inferiority of one or more races is built into the culture of a society. In this perspective, racism is an expression of culture and is also passed on through the transmission of culture (i.e., socialization).

An interesting twist on this type of prejudice can be seen in how high achieving secondary school students are treated. African American and Native American students with high GPAs are rejected by their peers while Asian American and white students with high GPAs experience greater social acceptance.¹¹⁷ This suggests that different racial and ethnic groups are rewarded for academic achievement while others are punished, potentially leading to members of those groups to pursue academic success while others are discouraged from doing so.

Historical Racism

Historical economic or social disparityis a form of inequality caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and other kinds of preparation in the

117 Fuller-Rowell, Thomas E., and Stacey N. Doan. 2010. “The Social Costs of Academic Success Across Ethnic Groups.” Child Development 81:1696-1713.

parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. This perspective argues that African-Americans, in particular, in the U.S.

have had their opportunities in life adversely affected due to the mistreatment of their ancestors (see slavery¹¹⁸). Disparities in wealth, net worth¹¹⁹and education lend credence to this idea.¹²⁰¹²¹ The figure below illustrates how historical racism has resulted in lower odds of inter-generational transmission of wealth, which, in turn, reduces net worth for racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S.

Figure 77

One response to racial disparity in the U.S. has beenAffirmative Action¹²². Affirmative Action is the practice of favoring or benefiting members of a particular race in areas such as college admissions and workplace advancement, in an attempt to create atmospheres of racial diversity¹²³and racial equality.

Though lauded by many as a boon to society, giving the less privileged a chance at success and working to overcome historical social disparity, the practice is condemned as racially discriminatory by others.

118 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/slavery 119 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/net%20worth 120 Wilson, William Julius. 1978. The Declining Significance of Race.

121 Wilson, William Julius. 1990. The Truly Disadvantaged.

122 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative%20action 123 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/diversity

Minorities Racial Profiling

Another type of racism is racial profiling¹²⁴. Racial profiling involves the singling out of individuals based upon their race for differential treatment, usually harsher treatment. Two examples of racial profiling in the United States are often discussed. The disparate treatment of minorities by law enforcement officials is a common example of racial profiling. Another example is the disparate treatment of young, male Arabs in airports who are more likely to be subjected to extensive screening.

Many critics of racial profiling claim that it is an unconstitutional practice because it amounts to questioning individuals on the basis of what crimes they might commit or could possibly commit, instead of what crimes they have actually committed.

Color-Blind Racism

In the US, the avoidance of racial language by European-Americans has been used to suggest that racism is no longer an issue. However, the continued prevalence of institutional racism has led some scholars like Bonilla-Silva to argue a "new racism" exists, that has arisen during the post-Civil Rights era. Bonilla-Silva suggests that a "color-blind racism" ideology supports racism while avoiding any reference to race.

Genocide

While not exclusively the result of racial or ethnic tension, genocide¹²⁵, the attempt to completely destroy a group of people based on a characteristic they share by another group of people who do not share that characteristic, is often the result of racism.¹²⁶ One technique that is often used by individuals engaged in genocide and even in war is racial epithets¹²⁷that dehumanize¹²⁸the enemy, making it easier to kill them.¹²⁹