EL ALTAR MAYOR
III.3. INFLUENCIAS ARQUITECTÓNICAS
The Kingdom of Tonga comprises groups of 172 small islands (36 inhabited) comprising a land area of 747 km2 spread over 720,000 km2 in the South Pacific (Jayavanth et al. 2009). They are mainly of coral origin, but with some volcanic, sitting on the Pacific “Ring of Fire”. The main groups are: Tongatapu, Ha’apai, Vava’u, ’Eua and the Niuas. The population of 110,000 is less than the number of Tongalese who live overseas and the nation is dependent on the remittances they send home and on overseas aid. The remainder of the economy is based on agriculture and fishing. Tourism, however, also plays a significant role in the economy. Forty to fifty thousand international tourists visit Tonga every year and tourism receipts reached T$60 million in 2011 and, although it accounts for only 8% of Tonga’s GDP3, tourism provides about 40% of Tonga’s total export receipts and is one of Tonga’s main
3 Calculated on nominal GDP of T$706.7 million (2010/2011) and tourism receipts of T$60 million (as at
January 2011) as reported in the Tonga Government’s 2011‐2012 Budget Statement (table 2, p;7 and p.26 respectively).
sources of foreign exchange earnings (Tonga Government Budgetary Statement 2011‐2012, p.26). The World Tourism Organisation records Tonga’s international tourism receipts as fluctuating between US$5.9million and US$19.5million during the 2000s, but generally above US$10million.
Tourism has been targeted as a potential growth area and it has attracted significant aid support4. Tonga is targeting high value tourism to the outer islands, but has also invested in a new wharf at Nuku’alofa (on Tongatapu) primarily for cruise ships. The islands have popular anchorage for yachts travelling Pacific routes and whale watching has become a major tourism attraction. The resorts, however, tend to be focussed on ‘sun, sea and sand’. The islands sit near a major subduction zone (the Tonga Trench) which is the origin of significant seismic activity and the September 2009 tsunami generated by at least one, possibly two, magnitude 8 earthquakes (Beavan et al. 2010, Lay et al. 2010, Satake 2010). The maximum flow height of the three tsunami waves that struck the Niua Islands immediately afterward was 16.9m and penetrated 1km inland (The World Bank n.d.) destroying houses and infrastructure, and killing nine people. Subsequently land‐swaps were arranged to enable those who wished, to be relocated in new houses built further inland (10m at least above sea level), but many refused and still remain in coastal locations (Connell 2012). Although this is the most significant disaster in recent times, few actually left the Niuas. This contrasts with the situation following volcanic eruptions on Niuafo’ou in 1946 which triggered significant out‐migration and associated social problems when 1300 Niuafo’ouans moved to Nuku’alofa for resettlement, many subsequently to ‘Eua (Rogers 1981).
Tropical cyclones, storm surge and flooding, tornados, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, and drought have all been identified as significant hazards (Jayanvanth et al 2009). Tropical cyclones are the most frequent of the significant hazards, with 1982’s Isaac causing 6 deaths and T$18.1million damage (Jayavanth et al., 1989). More recently (February 2010), TC Rene caused over T$20million in damage and lost agricultural production and T$100,000 damage to the Oholei Resort and T$30,000 to the Kolo Tonga, as well as, the loss of several weeks revenue.
The Kingdom remains a constitutional monarchy although its first democratic elections were held in 2010. Governance of the Kingdom of Tonga has also faced some significant political turmoil with riots, looting and burning of Nuku’alofa in 2006, but seemingly little damage to the tourism trade (Manning 2012). The destruction wrought by riots and the tsunami has led to considerable international aid and loans to the construction sector especially from China, Japan, Australia, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank. One of the Government’s eight 2011/2012 budgetary objectives is: ”Cultural awareness, environmental
sustainability, disaster risk management and CCA, [are] integrated into all planning and implementation of programmes, by establishing and adhering to appropriate procedures and consultation mechanisms”.
The Environmental Impact Assessment Act 2003 requires environmental impact statements for any major project. Major projects defined in the Act’s schedule include:
“…tourism or recreational resorts, buildings or facilities, involving a total building floor area of greater than 1,000 square metres or a potential total overnight accommodation level (visitors and staff combined) in excess of 20 persons”.
In determining an assessment, the Minister for the Environment must consider whether the project will “result in the occurrence, or increase the chances of occurrence, of physical hazards such as soil erosion, flooding, tidal inundation, or hazardous substances”. Such a process should reduce the vulnerability of new resorts that exceed the definitional thresholds.
The Emergency Management Act 2007 established a National Emergency Management Office and regional and district emergency committees, and set in place a system of emergency management planning. ‘Emergency management’ is defined in the Act as “managing the potential adverse effects of an event, including mitigating community risk, preparing for and responding to threatening events and recovering from an emergency”. An event is:
(a) a cyclone, earthquake, storm, storm surge, tornado, tsunami, volcanic eruption or other natural happening;
(b) an explosion or fire, a chemical, fuel or oil spill, or a gas leak; (c) an infestation, plague or epidemic;
(d) a failure of an essential service or infrastructure; (e) a terrorist attack against the Kingdom; or
(f) any other event similar to an event referred to in paragraphs (a) to (e).
However, it is notable that National Disaster Management Plans have been in place since 1987, pre‐dating the Act, and Jayavanth et al. 2009 (p.39) conclude that there is high‐level political commitment to DRR, but that the challenge remains “to mainstream DRR into the operational plans of all sectors”.
In summary, the Government has mechanisms in place for addressing disaster at all phases and has high level commitment, but the country lies in a very seismically active area and a high risk area for tropical cyclones. Tourism is a key, vulnerable export earner.