The other study involving Krashen is that undertaken with Cho in 1994 (Cho & Krashen, 1994). This differs from the Mason and Krashen study in several respects. In this there were only four participants, so it is not a statistically significant study like the first. The participants were immigrants to the US, learning English as a second, not a foreign language;; three of them were Korean and the fourth was Spanish. No accountability was required of them except to report which books they had read, so that the quantity could be recorded, although various ways were used to estimate the increase in their English vocabulary over the duration of the study. Another difference was that the diet of books available was restricted to one series of ¶DXWKHQWLF·WH[WVZULWWHQIRUQDWLYHVSHDNHUVWKH6ZHHW9DOOH\VHULHV0RVWERRNVUHDG were from Sweet Valley Kids, but the most advanced learners also read books from
34
Sweet Valley Twins and Sweet Valley High. As in the first study, one notable result ZDVWKDW¶DOOIRXUZRPHQEHFDPHHQWKXVLDVWLFUHDGHUV· (Cho & Krashen, 1994, p. 664) DQGWKH\UHSRUWHGWKDW¶UHDGLQJKHOSHGWKHLURUDODXUDOSURILFLHQF\·DQGWKXV
LQFUHDVHGWKHLU¶FRQILGHQFHDQGFRPSHWHQFHLQHYHU\GD\VLWXDWLRQVVXFKDVVKRSSLQJ DQGLQFRQYHUVDWLRQ·)LQDOO\WKHVWXG\KDGDGXDOSXUSRVH7KHDXWKRUV·K\SRWKHVLV ZDV ¶LIZHJDYHDGXOWVHFRQGODQJXDJHVWXGHQWVWKHright (my italics) texts, [that is, texts] that were both interesting and comprehensible, we would see more free UHDGLQJDQGFOHDUSURJUHVVLQVHFRQGODQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQ· So although the study was investigating language acquisition in relation to amount of free reading, the free UHDGLQJZDVGHSHQGHQWXSRQWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHWH[WV WKH\KDGWREH¶ULJKW·LQWHUPV of interest and level. The Sweet Valley books are usually about school children or young adults, and were clearly interesting to the students participating in the study, DOWKRXJK&KRDQG.UDVKHQDGPLWWKDWSRVVLEO\¶QRWDOOVHFRQGODQJXDJHOHDUQHUVZLOO EHLQWHUHVWHGLQERRNVVXFKDV6ZHHW9DOOH\«·(Cho & Krashen, 1994, p. 667) And although it turned out that in both studies enjoyment in reading was evident, in neither was it the focus of the inquiry. However, in the Cho and Krashen study, enjoyment was implicit in the purpose of reading;; as the proficiency of the subjects improved, they resorted less and less to dictionaries, and simply read for pleasure. 2.8.4 Elley and Mangubhai
The next study to be examined is the Fijian Book Flood, instigated and reported by Elley and Mangubhai (1983), which I include because it is much cited as an example of the beneficial effects on language acquisition of a large amount of reading. Their experiment used three treatments for a group of Fijian primary school children at levels 4 and 5: the treatments were the Shared Book method, the Silent Reading method and the traditional Tate method, based on Audio-lingualism. The Tate method was used for the control groups. All three groups were taught according to the normal school timetable, but the Shared Book and Silent Reading groups replaced 20 ² 30 minutes each day of the Tate Reading activities with Shared Book or Silent Reading activities. The Tate method involved teaching two 15 minute oral (QJOLVKOHVVRQVDGD\DQGXVLQJ*5V JUDGHGUHDGHUV VXFKDVWKH)LML0LQLVWU\·V WH[W´6WRULHVIRU8VµWRSURYLGHSUDFWLFHLQRUGHUWR¶FRQVROLGDWHWKHVWUXFWXUHVDnd
35
vocabulary taught in the oral lessons· (Elley & Mangubhai, 1983, p. 59). The Shared Book group was taught by using large format story book versions of Book Flood books, which were read together with the class several times. As the children grew familiar with the story more opportunity was given for them to contribute, by making comments and doing related activities such as role play and drawing. The 6LOHQW5HDGLQJJURXSVLPSO\UHDGERRNVRIWKHLUFKRLFHVHOHFWHGIURPWKH¶%RRN )ORRG·FROOHFWLRQIRUWKHDOORWWHGFODVVWLPHDQGWKLVVLOHQWUHDGLQJZDVPRGHOOHGE\ the class teachers.
7KH¶%RRN)ORRG·K\SRWKHVLVZDVWKDWH[SRVXUHWRDODUJHQXPEHURIERRNVZRXOG have a positive effect on language acquisition, which would be measured by contrasting the Silent Reading group and the Shared Book group with the control group. A second hypothesis was thDWLQWKH6KDUHG%RRNPHWKRG¶SXSLOVZRXOG become more actively involved in the learning experience than the Silent Reading JURXS·%RWKQHZPHWKRGVZHUHH[SHFWHGWRSURYLGHPRUHODQJXDJHDFTXLVLWLRQWKDQ the Tate Method, and this expectation was proved correct. Although better
acquisition was observed at the end of the first year by the Shared Book method group, by the second year very little difference was apparent between the Shared %RRNJURXSDQGWKH6LOHQW5HDGLQJJURXS(OOH\DQG0DQJXEKDLVD\ ¶WKH lack of GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHWZRPHWKRGVLQGLFDWHVWKDWWKHVHDFWLYLWLHV>WKH¶RXWSXW· activities related to the Shared Book stories] are not as important as their advocates FODLP·
In the Book Flood study the only GRs specifically alluded to are the ones used for the Control Groups. The 300 books provided as material for the Silent Reading and the Shared Book groups are not listed, but Elley and Mangubhai mention the
Ladybird books, a series written for children who are native speakers of English, and WKH\VD\WKDW ¶WKHSRSXODUVWRULHVRIWKHZHVWHUQWUDGLWLRQ- The Three Pigs,
&LQGHUHOOD5HG5LGLQJ+RRG«ZHUHFRQVLVWHQWIDYRXULWHV«DQGHIIHFWLYHLQ KRRNLQJFKLOGUHQRQWRWKHUHDGLQJKDELW·,WVHHPVWKDWPRVWRIWKHERRNVZHUH simple, high interest, well illustrated books produced for native speakers. When discussing exactly what caused the differences between the groups, Elley and
36
0DQJXEKDLFRQFOXGHWKDWLI¶WKHUHZDVDQ\JUHDWHUPRWLYDWLRQWRUHDG(QJOLVK>LQWKH Book Flood groups] it was produced b\WKHDSSHDORIWKHERRNVWKHPVHOYHV·7KH Book Flood books were clearly more popular than the GRs produced for the Fijian Government.
What the Fijian Book Flood appears to show is that input, in the form of enjoyable books, will have a positive effect on language acquisition, and the amount of output, or accountability required does not make a great deal of difference to the final result. Elley and Mangubhai justify ER, delivered either as Silent Reading or Shared Book Reading, by its positive effect on language acquisition, but implicit in this study is WKHSULQFLSOHRIHQFRXUDJLQJOHDUQHUVWREHFRPH¶KRRNHG·RQWKHUHDGLQJKDELW through reading large amounts of attractive, interesting books for pleasure. The Book Flood programme does not promote the result, or product, of the reading to the detriment of enjoying the reading process. Its aim appears to be the fostering of the reading experience as much as the development of language proficiency.
2.8.5 Macalister
-RKQ0DFDOLVWHU·V(2008) study is cDOOHG¶,PSOHPHQWLQJH[WHQVLYHUHDGLQJLQDQ($3 (QJOLVKIRU$FDGHPLF3XUSRVHV SURJUDPPH·DQGLWLVVLPLODUWRWKHVWXGLHVRI(OOH\ and Mangubhai, Cho and Krashen and to my own study, in that it involves
participants who are studying English as a second, rather than a foreign language. It is also similar to the Cho and Krashen study and to the Silent Reading Group in Elley and Mangubhai in that no accountability is demanded of the participants other than reporting which books were read.
0DFDOLVWHU·VSDrticipants were students from abroad whose command of English was insufficient for the New Zealand university level studies they wished to pursue. The English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programme was designed to bring them up to the required level. MacalLVWHU·VUDWLRQDOHLVWKDW(5LVODUJHO\DEVHQWLQ($3
programmes, usually because of the stringent formal teaching demands of the syllabus. However, he cites Day and Bamford (1998, p. 34) as a source of twelve studies showing the value of ER in developing proficiency in listening, reading and
37
writing, if it is integrated into a teaching programme. Macalister (2008, p. 250) says: ¶WKHPRVWXQXVXDODVSHFWRIWKHFODss programme was the inclusion of 20 minutes of sustained silent reading at the end of each morning, with the teacher modelling good UHDGLQJEHKDYLRXUE\UHDGLQJVLOHQWO\GXULQJWKLVWLPH·7KHOHDUQHUVFKRVH*5V IURPWKH/DQJXDJH/HDUQLQJ&HQWUH·VOLEUDUy, and these were catalogued according WROHYHO¶7KHUHZDVQRDFWLYLW\UHODWHGWRWKHUHDGLQJ«/HDUQHUVZHUHHQFRXUDJHG to read in their own time and to reaG«DWOHDVWWZR*5VDZHHN·(ibid). This study differed from many ERPs in that it did not try to measure the gain in language SURILFLHQF\DVDUHVXOWRIWKHSURJUDPPHDOWKRXJK1DWLRQ·V9RFDEXODU\/HYHOV7HVW ZDVDGPLQLVWHUHGDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHFRXUVHDQG¶LQGLFDWHGWKDWWZRWKLUGVRIWKH class did not have mastery of the 2000-ZRUGOHYHO·(ibid) and thus would have had difficulty in reading academic texts. Instead the efficacity of the programme was PHDVXUHGLQDVHULHVRITXHVWLRQQDLUHVDQGLQWHUYLHZV0DFDOLVWHUFRQFOXGHVWKDW¶WKH inclusion of extensive reading as a component of an EAP programme was positively received by the learners and at least in some cases created positive attitudes towards UHDGLQJ·6RKHUHWKHIRFXVZDVRQ¶SRVLWLYHDWWLWXGHVWRUHDGLQJ·EHLQJIRVWHUHG without accountability. This focus on reading for pleasure would tend to encourage an aesthetic stance among the learner-readers. However, the study was not designed to investigate which kinds of texts appealed to which learners, or why they enjoyed them.
2.8.6 Two studies of the same ERPs in secondary schools: Green and Wong 0DFDOLVWHUFRPSDUHVKLVVWXG\ZLWK*UHHQ·V(2005) account of the Hong Kong Extensive Reading Scheme (HKERS), despite the fact that the HKERS was delivered to secondary, not tertiary leDUQHUVEHFDXVHQHLWKHUSURJUDPPHZDV¶LQWHJUDWHGZLWK RWKHUFRPSRQHQWVRIWKHSURJUDPPH·(Macalister, 2008, p. 254) and in both cases the UHDGLQJZDV¶LQGLYLGXDOO\RULHQWHG·ZKLFKRQHPLJKWH[SHFWLQDQ(53,QERWKFDVHV also, there was a prescribed length of time for reading in the classroom. However, *UHHQ·VLVRQHRIWKHIHZUHSRUWVWKDWDUHFULWLFDORI(53VDVWKHUHVXOWVRIWKH+.(56 ZHUHUDWKHUGLIIHUHQWIURPWKRVHRI0DFDOLVWHU·VSURJUDPPH*UHHQEHJLQVKLVDUWLFOH ZLWKWKHZRUGV ¶Few language learning initiatives have generated more hope
38
LQLWLDOO\DQGPRUHGLVDSSRLQWPHQWXOWLPDWHO\WKDQH[WHQVLYHUHDGLQJVFKHPHV·DQG he goes on to describe the implementation of this Hong Kong wide programme for ER in secondary schools in the 1990sZKLFKKHILQGV¶LQLWVRYHUZKHOPLQJFRQFHUQ WRGHYHORSUHDGLQJIOXHQF\DQGDHVWKHWLFDSSUHFLDWLRQ«IDLOVWRSD\VXIILFLHQW DWWHQWLRQWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIOHDUQHUV·WDUJHWODQJXDJHV\VWHPV·7KHUHDVRQVIRU the disparity in results between the Hong Kong and Macalister programmes appear WROLHLQWKHGHOLYHU\,WLVFOHDUIURP*UHHQ·VDUWLFOHWKDWWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKH (53VLQ+RQJ.RQJZDVQRWFRQVLVWHQWRYHUDOOWKHVFKRROV+HVD\V¶VFKRROV interpret government-issued guidelines in strikingly diIIHUHQWZD\V·$FFRUGLQJWR KLVUHSRUWIHZVFKRROVWRRNXS¶WKHRSSRUWXQLW\IRUVKDULQJWKHFKDOOHQJHVDQGMR\V RIUHDGLQJLQDIRUHLJQODQJXDJH·,QVWHDGWKH¶LQGLYLGXDOLVHGDQG>PRVW LPSRUWDQWO\@VLOHQWQDWXUHRIWKHVFKHPH·ZDVWKHGRPLQDQWFKDUDFWHristic of the VFKHPHDQG*UHHQGHVFULEHV(5FODVVHVLQPDQ\VFKRROVDVKDYLQJ¶DOOWKH DSSHDUDQFHRIDSDUWLFXODUO\PRQDVWLFGHWHQWLRQVHVVLRQ·7KLVKDUGO\VRXQGVDVLILW DGKHUHVWRDQ\SULQFLSOHRIHQMR\PHQW$QRWKHUGHSDUWXUHIURPWKHLGHDORI¶SOHDVure UHDGLQJ·UHFRPPHQGHGLQ'D\DQG%DPIRUG·V¶UHDGLQJLVLWVRZQUHZDUG·SULQFLSOH is that learners in the HKERS were not allowed to progress to a higher level of reader unless they had passed a test. This undoubtedly raised the affective filter by causing anxiety (Krashen, 1987, p. 31), and therefore limited input. In addition, as there was a limited number of books available at each level, it meant that the Day and Bamford principle of choice (no 3) was probably not adhered to either, as in the circumstances it was likely that a number of learners would have been obliged to read books which did not really interest them.
As far as the books read were concerned, fifty books at each of 8 readability levels were supplied by the Edinburgh Project for Extensive Reading, but neither Green nor Wong (2001) in an earlier report, relate which of these books, if any, were popular, or why. Wong criticises the limited choice of reading;; 400 titles for all the secondary school children in Hong Kong certainly seems a parsimonious quantity. :RQJ·VUHSRUWOLNH*UHHQ·VJLYHVDJHQHUDOly negative review of the HKERS. He VD\VWKDWDGHFDGHDIWHUWKHLQWURGXFWLRQRIWKH+.(56¶WKHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGV(QJOLVK
39
UHDGLQJ«UHPDLQVQHJDWLYH·DQG¶FRQFHUQDERXWWKHGHFOLQLQJ(QJOLVKSURILFLHQF\ DPRQJWKHVWXGHQWVLVVWLOOZLGHVSUHDG·(Wong, 2001, p. 3). His criticisms are very VLPLODUWR*UHHQ·VDQGIRFXVRQWKH¶SRRURUJDQLVDWLRQSDWWHUQVIRUGHOLYHULQJ UHDGLQJLQVWUXFWLRQ·*UHHQWKRXJKWWKDWWDVN-based outcomes related to reading could have been integrated into the demands of the syllabus. This would have meant accountability, but accountability focused on the outcomes of tasks, rather than the results of tests. Taking the conclusions from both reports together, it might indicate that the implementation of the ERPs focused too much on accountability, DQGWKXVHPSKDVLVHGWKHHIIHUHQWHQGRI5RVHQEODWW·VUHVSRQVHFRQWLQXXPDWWKH expense of enjoyment of reading. There is also more than a hint that some
instructiRQLQWKHOHDUQHUV·DSSURDFKWRUHDGLQJZDVODFNLQJ7KHVHFRQGDU\VFKRRO children were in no way guided towards enjoyment of reading, and it was clearly seen by many of them as a burden.