B. Sistema de Gobernanza
B.1 Información general sobre el sistema de gobernanza
The success factors with major consideration being outlined in this chapter centre on those that are related to the company/organisation as such. These comprise strategy and implications of the planned change, readiness to change, knowledgeable and expe- rienced resources, and the customer. At the end of this section, relatively less important dimensions are covered for completeness but in less detail than the former.
2.7.2.1 Strategy and implications of the planned change
Strategy planning, formulation, and implementation are interlinked and influence each other. On the one hand, implementation succeeds formulation (planning affects execu- tion) and in turn implementation affects changes to strategy and planning in due course (Hrebiniak, 2006). Moreover, as Hrebiniak (2006) states good implementation cannot overcome a poor or vaguely formulated strategy.
The successful management of a SCP requires a clearly defined, consistent, shared vi- sion, common meaning, and consensus (Beer, Eisenstat & Spector, 1990; Noble, 1999b; Iveroth, 2011; Shehu & Akintoye, 2011). Linked to that a business plan with specific goals, objectives and targets (Nah & Delgado, 2006) needs to be developed with a clear link between business strategy and change content (Jones, 2002; Finney & Corbett, 2007). Reed & Buckley (1988) as well as Noble (1999a) enhance the importance of goal- setting for the implementation process which means translating strategies into specific goals. Others stress the relevance of having a clear rationale by defining a business and benefit case (Shehu & Akintoye, 2011; Williams et al., 2012). Additionally, reasons and cause-effect relations prompting the strategic change, goals and objectives, planning and change implications need not only be realistically developed, clearly defined and docu- mented, but also clearly understood (Bryson & Bromiley, 1993; Bedingham & Thomas, 2006; Kronbichler, Ostermann & Staudinger, 2009; Al-Kandi, Asutay & Dixon, 2013). This understanding needs to be achieved not only by those responsible for implementa- tion but also by those who are affected (Bryson & Bromiley, 1993; Pinto & Slevin, 2008; Campbell, Edgar & Stonehouse, 2011).
2.7.2.2 Readiness to change
Readiness to change comprises two areas, practical and mental readiness. The latter is about thinking, fear, scepticism, satisfaction, or attitude towards change. Organisational changes impact on various organisational levels, thus, impacting managers and employ- ees. Since organisational change is about changing the work environment, it impacts on morale, trust, work satisfaction and consequently on productivity (Lee & Teo, 2005). Both, trust and work satisfaction play a significant role for successfully implementing changes (Lee & Teo, 2005). Keeping the focus on people (Jørgensen, Owen & Neus, 2009; Recardo & Heather, 2013) and managing these emotional dimensions in the change process is vital to its success.
It is regarded as important to create readiness for change (Rodenstock, 2007; Armenakis & Harris, 2009) and to overcome uncertainty, lack of trust or even fear (Campbell, Edgar & Stonehouse, 2011) leading to resistance to change. Middle managers might fear losing authority and control, whereas employees might be sceptical about project results, feel- ing uncomfortable with the new working environment or even fear losing their jobs (Huq, Huq & Cutright, 2006; Abdolvand, Albadvi & Ferdowsi, 2008). Managing readiness to change is concerned with identifying potential resistance by taking concerns seriously (Capgemini, 2012; Creasey & Taylor, 2014), minimising potential conflicts (Al-Kandi, Asutay & Dixon, 2013) and maintaining people’s confidence (Jones, 2002). Stimulating the organisation’s receptiveness to change requires many one-to-one or one-to-many in- teractions (Al-Mashari & Zairi, 1999) which relates to stakeholders’ satisfaction with the amount and quality of information on the change (Kotter, 1995; Jurisch et al., 2014). Consequently, this is closely linked to other CSFs – stakeholder management and com- munication as this is the mean to explain the case for change to all relevant parties. Ac- cording to Holt et al. (2007a) the degree to which employees are prepared is influenced by the following aspects: the degree to which they are convinced that the change is nec- essary, beneficial to the organisation and to themselves as well as by the commitment of the organisation’s leaders.
Moreover, not only mental readiness but also practical readiness is critical for organisa- tional and individuals’ capacity and capability to change (OGC, 2007). This is about hav- ing the required knowledge and skills for implementing the change (Heide, Grønhaug & Johannessen, 2002; Pinto & Slevin, 2008; Clardy, 2013). The “Making Change Work” study (IBM, 2008) highlights the relevance of developing skills and capabilities, enhanc- ing change know-how and empowering people to implement the change. Todnem By (2007) claims a correlation between level of readiness to change and the successful management of changes.
2.7.2.3 Knowledgeable and experienced resources
In strategy implementation manpower is a key resource which can have a positive or negative impact (Alexander, 1985). Being aware of existing and required critical knowledge and skills is considered to be important to actively contribute to strategy exe- cution and implementation success (Heide, Grønhaug & Johannessen, 2002; Hrebiniak, 2006; Pinto & Slevin, 2008). Competence and competent project team members (Eisenstat, 1993; Williams et al., 2012; Nyström et al., 2013), or, as even more strongly emphasised by Finney & Corbett (2007) having the “best and brightest” people is crucial for project and implementation work. These qualified teams should represent the various affected areas (Kronbichler, Ostermann & Staudinger, 2009) combining the required business, functional, technical, and managerial know-how (Nah & Delgado, 2006; Ngai, Law & Wat, 2008). These multidisciplinary and knowledgeable teams are necessary to understanding and taking into account the needs and requirements of the different busi- ness units and functions in order to align the to-be implemented changes appropriately (Françoise, Bourgault & Pellerin, 2009; Subramoniam, Tounsi & Krishnankutty, 2009).
2.7.2.4 Customer perspective
The analysis of CSF reveals that most CSFs concentrate on internal aspects. However, it is not to forget the external environment, especially customers and even more important if they are impacted by the internal organisational change programmes (Thiry, 2010). Customer consultation and taking into account their needs is increasingly important in at- tempting to successfully implement change (Belassi & Tukel, 1996; Pinto & Slevin, 2008; Recardo & Heather, 2013). Jones (2002) underlines the importance of maintaining cus- tomers’ confidence and satisfaction. Customer requirements and expectations should be reflected (Al-Mashari & Zairi, 1999; 2000) especially where business processes or IT in- terfaces are changed which have a direct impact on customers (Hall, Rosenthal & Wade, 1993; Terziovski, Fitzpatrick & O’Neill, 2003).
2.7.2.5 Further critical success factors related to the organisation
For completeness, this section and outlined in the table below briefly refers to those CSFs related to the organisation identified in the literature that are mentioned by only a few authors or are not of highest relevance to the findings of the case study.
Table II-6: Further critical success factors related to the organisation Further critical success factors related to the organisation
• Organisational culture that motivates and promotes change (e.g. IBM (2008))
• Rewarding change supporting achievements and activities (e.g. O’Toole (1995), Kotter (1996), OGC (2007))
• Technology and systems to support the change implementation (e.g. Pinto & Slevin (2008)) • Relationship to and selection of suppliers and third parties like consultants, contractors,
vendors; how their capabilities are used to support and implement the change, not rely- ing/being dependent too much on externals (e.g. Williams et al. (2012), Al-Mashari & Zairi (1999))
Source: Own table based on literature review
A more comprehensive overview of these factors and corresponding references can be found in Appendix 1.