Sobre informalidad

Lise Andreasen1_{, Ilse Ankjær Rasmussen}1 _{& Niels Halberg}1 1 _{International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems (ICROFS), Tjele, Denmark}

Correspondence: Lise Andreasen, International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems (ICROFS), Blichers Alle 20, 8830 Tjele, Denmark. Tel: 45-8715-7771. E-mail: [email protected]

Received: June 3, 2015 Accepted: July 10, 2015 Online Published: July 15, 2015 doi:10.5539/sar.v4n3p173 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/sar.v4n3p173

Abstract

The ICROFS (International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems) has conducted an analysis of the effects of organic research in Denmark (1996-2010) on the Danish organic sector and on society in general. Over these 15 years, three national programs and one program with European collaboration have been implemented in Denmark, financed via special government grants that amounted to just over 500 million DKK (approx. € 67 million—or approximately $ 80 million). The analysis itself was carried out as a compilation of information from three perspectives, each of which has been independently documented:

 Interviews with (representatives of) end-users of results from research and development (R&D) investigating their assessment of the challenges in the sector and solutions developed from 1996-2010

 Assessment of the R&D endeavours in different thematic areas (dairy/milk, pigs, crops, etc.) as they related to end-users and the stated challenges at that time

 Documentation of the dissemination of R&D results in relation to themes and challenges in the sector The results showed very good correspondence between end-users’ perceptions of the challenges overcome in the sector, the R&D initiated in the research programmes, and the dissemination of research results and other forms of knowledge transfer. The analysis documented direct effects of the research initiatives targetting the challenges in the sector such as higher yields, weed and pest control, animal health and welfare, the potential for phasing out the use of antibiotics in Danish dairy herds and reducing the problems caused by seedborne diseases. It also describes where research did not contribute as much to overcoming challenges. In contrast, the analysis showed that the effects of the research in the organic processing industry and among relevant governmental and non-governmental organisations were of a more indirect character. Research has helped stabilize the supply and quality of raw materials at a time of growing demand and sales. Organic research also generates new knowledge and leads to new opportunities that can provide inspiration for a green conversion, product diversification and growth also in conventional agriculture. The analysis showed that research under the national research programs overall have been very applied and directed at the barriers in the sector in order to support the general market and growth conditions for the organic sector. Having laid a solid foundation, the private sector has been able to take advantage of commercial opportunities when demand grew, while adhering to the organic policy objectives of the market-driven growth in the organic sector.

Keywords: organic research, analysis, effect, impact analysis, food production, organic sector, organic growth, Denmark

1. Introduction

1.1 The organic Sector in Denmark

Since the mid-1980s organic farming in Denmark has been promoted through political initiatives in order to respond to consumers’ demand for organic products. The policies of governments during the past decades have included financial support for the conversion of conventional farms, regulation and control, advisory services, information campaigns, and education and research in organic farming (Halberg et al., 2012). At the end of the 1980s and start of the 1990s Danish research in organic farming was primarily carried out on private farms and in long-term crop rotations at research stations around the country (Halberg et al., 2012). With the first action plan [Action Plan I (Det økologiske Fødevareråd, 1995)] for the promotion of organic food production prepared

by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1995 and followed by Action Plan II (Det økologiske Fødevareråd, 1999) in 1999, research in organic farming was given a higher priority than earlier times, which resulted in the development of a national research program and the establishment of the Danish Research Centre for Organic Farming (DARCOF) [now the International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems (ICROFS)] – a ‘centre without walls’ to coordinate these programs as research continued within existing research environments throughout the EU.

From 1996-2010 Denmark had four research programs in organic farming and foods financed via special government grants (one of them with European collaboration). While the first program primarily addressed issues related to the primary production (Halberg et al., 2012) the following programs also included issues related to industry (including processing), society (including environment and health) and the consumer level (including credibility of the sector) (Halberg et al., 2012). In these programs funds were allocated to coordination, communication and dissemination, as well as to knowledge synthesis, research methodology and to research education (PhDs at universities and research centres involved in the research) (Halberg et al., 2012). The centre was able to establish and maintain close contact to the players in the sector via user groups and extensive meeting and dissemination activities in order to ensure the continued relevance of research efforts and applicability of results.

In the same period the organic sector has undergone a strong development from its beginning as a niche market and has become an important part of the Danish food sector. The area under organic farming, including the area under conversion in 2010, was 6.4 % of total farmed area (Statistics Denmark, 2012). Of the total food sales in 2010, 7.2 % was certified organic (Statistics Denmark, 2012) after a dramatic increase in sales from 0.5 billion DKK (approx. € 67 million —or approximately $ 80 million) in 1996 to 5.1 billion DKK (approx. € 684 million—or approximately $ 821 million) in 2010 (Organic Denmark, 2012). Nearly all supermarket chains had a large assortment of organic products and for some product groups, such as eggs and milk, the organic market share was 20-30% of retail sales (Statistics Denmark, 2012).

It is the view of ICROFS that several important factors have contributed to the positive development of the organic sector in Denmark, including support for marketing and the regulatory framework from public and private sectors; establishment of strong institutions in organic farming; entrepreneurs and pioneers in the organic farming, processing and retailing sectors; as well as research carried out in universities, research stations and together with advisors and farmers at private farms.

1.2 Impact Assessment

Impact assessment involves a number of complex issues that are difficult to fully address in a single study (Bloch et al., 2014). Furthermore, conducting cost-benefit analysis and productivity analysis for research is costly (Pedersen et al., 2011). Due to this, it was decided to carry out the analysis as a mixed methods approach, including both quantitative and qualitative methods (Bloch et al., 2014).

The purpose of the analysis of the effect of the organic research was to document the role of research in the development and growth of the organic sector and to achieve a deeper understanding of the utilisation and the effect of the research results in practice. The analysis was published in a report in 2012 (Halberg et al., 2012). The analysis has been conducted by consultants from the Knowledge Centre for Agriculture (now SEGES) (Note 1) and from the Institute of Global Food & Farming (Note 2)as well as staff from ICROFS.

2. Methods

The analysis was based on a triangulation approach (Halberg et al., 2012) to collect qualitative as well as quantitative information from three perspectives (Figure 1), each being independently documented:

1. End-users’ (representatives) perception of the R&D results – to investigate the views of stakeholders on how their part of the sector has developed and the extent to which this has been supported by R&D

2. Focus and implementation of R&D research – to investigate the correlation bewteen the resarch projects and the results and effects pointed out by the end-users, as well as comparing research projects with needs identified by the sector and included in the action plans

3. Dissemination of R&D results – to document which results (and feedback) have been communicated between research and the users of research

Figure 1. The three perspectives of the triangulation approach used in the organic program evaluation

The purpose of the triangulation method was to create a solid foundation for any conclusions in the areas where R&D could have had an effect. By combining the three perspectives, it was expected that a robust analysis of the effect of the R&D effort in the period in question could be made. The triangulation approach was developed based on an analysis framework of the dynamics of research programing and implementation as illustrated in Figure 2. The illustration includes the traditional interpretation of research, dissemination, and use, but not necessarily as separate and consecutive phases. With the flows of information and interactions between phases and with feedback loops to planning and programming the framework becomes more dynamic and illustrative of how the four organic reseach programs have been implemented.

There has been a continuous influence on research by the stakeholders via a number of processes. These include consumer influence on programs where representatives of the sector influence project focus, and also influence from within the projects, as end-users are deliberately involved with scientists in the design of the experiment. This feedback is not systematically included in the current analysis, although the formal influence on the research themes via DARCOF’s user group was addressed. While we in this article focus on the effect of research on users, Figure 2 also illustrates direct research products such as scientific papers, conference presentations and PhD dissertations resulting from these programs.

Figure 2. Analysis framework illustrating phases, interactions and communication in the programming and implementation of the four organic research programs

The findings of the investigations of the three perspectives were compared to identify the areas where R&D could be documented to have had an effect and the extent of this effect. The R&D results were judged to have had a positive effect when there was overlap between the end-users’ identification of useful results and the dissemination of these results via projects that have focused on these areas – in other words, when there was coincidence between the three perspectives in the triangulation approach (Figure 1). In most cases, these three perspectives were uncovered independently of each other, but in a few cases this has been followed by an in-depth investigation to reveal the link between research and use. This applies to some of the more detailed investigations, where, for example, the results suggested by a scientist as having had a large effect have been verified through targeted interviews with the users.

2.1 End-users Perception of the R&D Results - Approach

This perspective is based on questionnaires and interviews with key persons within the farmer-owned advisory service (in Denmark organised by the farmers’ union in local private advisory companies and a central center of expertise as well as the organic movement in Denmark also provides advisory service); with companies in the organic sector; and with a number of other possible end-users in organisations and public authorities.

Primary production advisors: Seven centrally placed advisors within organic crop production, milk, pig, poultry, and fruit/vegetable production, respectively, were interviewed in a systematic process. Fifteen local advisors (dedicated to organic agriculture) in crop production and livestock production were subsequently interviewed using a combination of questionnaires and follow-up interviews. In both types of interviews, the consultants’ own understanding of the development in their subsector over the last 10-15 years formed the basis for the discussion. Questions posed included: What were the challenges for the sector, how have they been overcome in practice, how had the production otherwise evolved and to what extent would the consultants attribute this development to the results of R&D? The advisors are in Denmark important for facilitating the linkage between research and farmers and a main channel for communicating and interpretating results to farmers. To ensure that the respondents would have the information needed to determin to what degree the continuing development and improvement in knowledge could be attributed to R&D, the systematic interviews were targeting the advisors as representatives of the end-users. Only in a few cases farmers have been directy involved in the investigations. Companies: A questionnaire was sent to a total of 15 companies that, partly or exclusively, process and retail organic products. Staff responsible for the organic production was asked to what extent organic R&D has influenced the development of their company and new products and the supply of commodities. For selected cases the questionnaire was followed up by an in-depth interview.

Organisations and authorities: A number of R&D projects have focused on topics relevant for society such as the impact of organic farming on environment, animal welfare, etc., and on consumer motivation for purchasing the products. To analyze the effect of these results, a questionnaire was sent to five persons from four public authorities in charge of legislation in the area of organic agriculture and the environment, and to ten persons from seven relevant, private organisations. Key persons were asked to give their views of the most important challenges that the organic sector had been facing in the period of 1996-2010, and to what extent organic research has contributed to solving these issues.

2.2 Focus and Implementation of R&D Research - Approach

The description of this perspective is based on two main sources of information. First, the range of projects was divided into the thematic areas of cattle/milk, pigs, crops, cultivation systems, etc., based on project descriptions and thematic areas in final reports; the scientists’ indications of which results they expect to have had an effect and on whom. Thereafter, the focus of the research projects was compared with the relevant recommendations in the two action plans for the development of the organic sector prepared by the Danish Government’s Organic Food Council under the auspices of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries in 1995 and 1999 (Det økologiske Fødevareråd, 1995, 1999).

2.3 Dissemination of R&D Results - Approach

To be able to document the extent to which knowledge and results from R&D projects have been accessible to advisors, an overview of the communications directed at farmers and advisors, scientists and other interested parties was prepared. The Knowledge Centre for Agriculture (VFL) regularly updates advisors with the latest knowledge, and some of this information refers directly to R&D projects and their investigations and results. By carrying out a search for results of the DARCOF projects and on the themes that were identified under perspective 1 (end-users) as important for the different segments of the sector, it has been possible to determine whether new knowledge in these areas has been conveyed to the local advisors and to the farmers. Due to the

large number of articles, an exhaustive search has not been made, as sufficient documentation was found for dissemination from projects to end-users in the most important areas.

In relation to all the R&D programs, DARCOF has taken the initiative to disseminate knowledge from the projects via their own and external media, also facilitating that scientists provided articles to the agricultural press and by supporting web-based communication, the preparation of newsletters, pamphlets and events where the results were presented. Since the start of DARCOF II the projects have been required to report and archive their articles and other written communication in the open-access online archive, Organic Eprints (Note 3).This has made it possible to make a thorough analysis of the output of the projects without having to go through each final report. In this way, publications which have been produced after the end of the project – which is typical for peer-reviewed papers – could also be included in the analysis.

3. Results

3.1 End-users Perception of the R&D Results – Findings

Overall the results showed that new research knowledge has had a considerable effect both on the advisory services and on farming practices. The interviewed advisors highlighted, for example, that research results have contributed to higher crop yields (including forage) and improved management of weeds and crop rotations, decreased calf mortality, and higher milk yields and income for dairy cows. Moreover, research and innovations in combined feeding and housing/outdoor keeping significantly improved health, welfare and productivity in pigs and poultry. In Table 1 the main challenges during 1996-2010 in the organic production sector, as identified by the respondents, are listed together with mentioned effects or changed practices at the farm level during the same period of time, the degree to which the challenge was solved, and if research had contributed to the solution.

The private sector respondents provided a couple of good examples of research projects contributing to the development of new products and marketing opportunities, but in general it was found that organic research only to a lesser degree has had an effect on product development. Respondents acknowledged, however, the positive effect of research on the development of the organic market, including growth in volume and turn-over, due to a more stable supply of uniform and high quality raw material. This has, e.g., been a precondition for expanding the processing and marketing of eggs and meat. The government institutions and private organisations responded that research results mainly have had an impact on environmental and animal welfare issues – which had been particularly important in the organic sector from 1996 to 2010. Research had contributed to solving challenges to some or a high degree and had an impact on public awareness and the development of legislation in agriculture, particularly in livestock.

Table 1. Summary of challenges, solutions, and contributions from research as identified by the advisory services for more details see (Halberg et al., 2012)

Challenge Success rating (Note 4)

Effects/change at farm level Did

research (Note 5) contribute?

Crop Production

Crop rotations 6 Partial break with conventional thinking Yes Nutrients 7 Optimization of fertilization (crop dependent, nutrient source) Yes Perennial weeds 7 New strategies for perennial weeds; testing of mechanical

weeding

Yes

Marketing 7 Professionalization and credibility of businesses No

Healthy seed 6 - -

Fruit and vegetables

Yields 6 Intensification of fruit production, planting system, selection of variety

Yes

Pests 5 Flower strips (balanced predator-pests populations in vegetables)

Yes

Varieties 5 Regular variety testing, development of stable varieties, quality control

Yes

Weeds 6 New technologies (mechanical control, flaming, soil cover, crop rotation)

Yes

Market growth/ sales

7 Rationalization, efficiency improvements, specialization, consumer focus Yes Product Development 5 Consumer focus - Org.-conv. interactions

7 Open-house events/farm visits, seminars, publications Yes

Credibility 7 Discussion, openness and information, debate, political responsiveness

-

Integration of livestock

- Organic project demonstration Yes

Livestock (cattle)

Grazing

(efficiency, land allocation)

3 Regulation No

Persistent plant cover close to stables, efficiency in feed value Yes Calf mortality 6 Reduced by improved housing and management, including

pasteurization of milk for calves

Yes

Udder health 4 Better economy, animal welfare, milk quality, less use of antibiotics

Yes

Forage quality 5 Improved variety selection, plant breeding, admixing of herbs/less feed supplementation

Yes

Protein supply 4 Supply stability, protein crop cultivation, testing methods for feed value, improved sustainability and less climate impact

Yes