As discussed in section 2.3.1, one of the greatest influences upon children’s education and their level of achievement was the impact that their parents had. Cullingford (1985, as discussed in section 2.3.1) argued that it was the parents in the family home who influenced children’s attitudes towards learning. And it was parental aspirations and expectations that would affect children throughout their educational careers. The support and encouragement that parents could offer included choosing the schools that their child attended, help with homework and coursework, help when choosing subject options and advice on further and higher education.
Fogelman (1976, as discussed in section 2.3.1) found in his survey that 24% of parents were ‘very anxious’ that their child did well at school and another 15% were ‘fairly anxious’. My research had similar findings: the majority of mothers claimed that their parents were not anxious for them to do well at school as long as they ‘tried their best’ and were ‘happy’ at school.
“No my parents, as long as we were happy, that was their main concern. That
we were happy at school.” (Ruth, mother)
However, nearly half of the sample felt that their parents were ‘very anxious’ or ‘fairly anxious’ that they did do well at school (even if the majority of these mothers were going to leave school at the earliest opportunity).
“Yes they were anxious, for all of us to do well at school. Yes they were. With a
career in mind.” (Yvonne, mother)
“A lot of pressure was on me by my parents. Because, if you like, of the three
[children] I was the one that was most likely to succeed and go on to higher education. And my parents had friends with sons and daughters who were going on to university, so I think they were anxious.” (Shirley, mother)
When the mothers in my sample had been at school during the 1960s there was low unemployment and jobs for school leavers were widely available and relatively easy to obtain. At this time the prevalent attitude in society was that a young woman would marry, terminate any employment she might have been in and then remain at home to raise children whilst the husband would go ‘out to work’. Due to the buoyant labour market and the belief that women would ultimately be ‘housewives and mothers’, many mothers in the sample found that their parents, especially their fathers, did not hold education in high esteem and wanted them to leave school at the earliest opportunity.
“My parents thought education was a waste, you know, what’s the point. To
them, what was the point of me having an education. ‘Bloody ridiculous’ my father said, ‘bloody ridiculous all this staying up till midnight to do exams and learn stuff. It’s pointless. You’re only going to get married and have a baby. What’s the use of it all? We can’t afford to send you to college. We can’t afford it. You’ll have to get out there and earn some money’.” (Beryl, mother)
“My father would never let me read because he considered reading a book a
waste of time. I used to enjoy reading…I used to have to do it in secret somewhere.” (Mabel, mother)
“I don't really remember being encouraged as such.” (Sharon, mother)
However, not all parents were dismissive of education, resulting in no support being given. Some of the mothers in the sample did receive encouragement, to do well at school, especially from their own mothers (even if they were going to leave at the earliest opportunity). Encouragement and support from mothers tended to take the form of two possibilities – a practical form of support (helping with homework or proofreading work) or an emotional form of support (always being ‘physically’ around).
“I can remember my mother reading to me a lot.” (Constance, mother)
“She'd always got time for you. She was always there and was a great
support.” (Nancy, mother)
“Mum was always at home because she didn’t work. She was always there.” (Shirley, mother)
The support that fathers gave tended to be verbal support (rather than practical support such as helping with homework):
“He used to go on and on and on about how important it was to get your
qualifications because if you didn’t, you know, you wouldn’t be able to do this, that and the other.” (Ellen, mother)
or just showing a general interest on a day-to-day basis:
“He just showed interest in what sort of had gone off in the day. If anything
interesting had gone off. That was about it really.” (Fern, mother)
Although there were mothers in the sample who had a father who was interested in their education and schooling and gave some form of support, the mothers were acutely aware that the responsibility for their education fell to their own mother. Schooling was the domain of the woman.
“Our education, and bringing four girls up was my mother's side, she done all
that (laughs). My father just provided the money.” (Dee, mother)
Mothers in the sample mentioned that their own experience of parental support, or non-parental support, had influenced their attitudes with their own daughters. For example, Barbara felt that a lack of parental support had influenced how her own education had proceeded and had affected her own achievement levels. She was aware of this when raising her own daughter.
“I didn't have that parental support and I think that was a big factor for me
personally.” (Barbara, mother)
If a mother in the sample had had a ‘pushy’ mother herself, whilst aware of the pressures she herself had experienced, she still placed the same kind of pressures and anxieties upon her own daughter.
“The day that I was taking the exam for the Technical College I never told my
mother. She didn't know until after I'd had the interview and been accepted, because I knew if I didn't pass I'd really get it in the neck. And I think probably some of this is why I'm a little bit like it [pushing daughter to achieve]. Like I've probably expected more from Courtney than what she's capable of doing.
Because my mum...okay parents want the best for their children but my mother just pushed me over the top completely.” (Mabel, mother)
The mothers in the sample acknowledged how their own experiences of parental support and/or parental anxieties with regard to education and schooling had affected their own relationships with their daughters. If they had been deprived of parental support themselves they were anxious that support, advice and encouragement was given to their own daughters. They were prepared to encourage, support and push their daughters to achieve academic success. In the same way that Walkerdine et al (2001, see section 2.3.1) in their research had found a great emphasis on the “value of education in fulfilling potential, extending choices and providing possibilities for the future” so, too, did I with my sample of mothers. Education was something that was now discussed and its role in people’s future successful lives was acknowledged and valued.
“I know it sounds silly but like now in this day and age you talk about education
and you talk about things like that. As far as education was concerned in my day and age you went to school at 5, you went to junior school, you went to secondary modern if you went there, which I did, and basically you finished, got a job and that was it. It [education] was never discussed, not ever talked about at all, not how it is now. Well it never was at all in our house.” (Bonnie, mother)
“I don't think the pressures were as great as they are today. Jobs were more
plentiful and you had more choice whereas today they've got to work hard because jobs are not so easy to come by.” (Ingrid, mother)
Mothers believed that schools and a formal education would help their daughters with their subsequent careers by helping them to gain qualifications and all the accompanying skills (practical and social) that would give them a better chance within the labour market. Mothers felt this would help their daughters, eventually, to