Instalación del sistema operativo CentOS 5.9

"John likes whom?"

In fig. 1, th e fact th a t th e tra c e refers to 'w hom ' is re p re s e n te d by th e ' l ' tag g ed a t th e e n d of b o th tr a c e a n d in te rro g a tiv e p ro n o u n . T h is sa fe g u a rd s o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g th e se n te n c e a s o n e in w h ic h w hom ' is th e object o f'lik e ' (cf. C hom sky, 1986, pp. 77-78).

A ccording to C hom sky, w h a t b e s t ex p la in s o u r sp e e c h b e h a v io u r is k n ow ledge o f g ra m m a tic a l r u le s s u c h a s th o s e p e rta in in g to w h - tra c e s - alo n g w ith c e rta in p e rfo rm a n c e m e c h a n is m s t h a t a c c e ss th is know ledge a n d p u t it to u se . 1 c a n n o t go in to th e a rg u m e n ts h e re , b u t

suffice it to sa y t h a t th is is th e p ic tu re t h a t fo rm s th e b a s is of m o s t th e o risin g a b o u t th e n a tu r e of ta c it know ledge. In w h a t follows, 1 sh a ll

u s e o u r know ledge of m h -tra c e s a s re p re s e n ta tiv e of o u r g ra m m a tic a l know ledge. W h a t is tr u e of th is know ledge, 1 will a s s u m e is tr u e of all of g ram m atica l know ledge.

T ac it know ledge w o rk s like o rd in a ry know ledge in a n u m b e r of re sp e c ts . It is, for ex am p le, c a u sa lly efficacious in th e p ro d u c tio n of a c e r ta in ra n g e of b e h a v io u r. In o th e r re s p e c ts , how ever, it is u n lik e o rd in a ry kn o w led g e. M o st of u s a re u n a w a r e of p o s s e s s in g it, for exam ple. T h ere is real d is p u te c o n c e rn in g w h a t c h a ra c te ris tic s s e t ta c it k n o w led g e a p a r t from o rd in a ry k n o w led g e, a n d w h a t c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t h a s for psychology. A co ro llary of th is is t h a t w h a t is classified a s ta c it know ledge, over a n d above g ra m m a tic a l c o m p e te n ce a n d vision, is n o t generally ag reed u p o n .

2. C h o m sky & Stich: Tacit K n o w led g e Is U nconscious

N oam C h o m sk y h a s s u g g e ste d t h a t th e only difference b e tw ee n su b d o x a stic s ta te s a n d beliefs is t h a t s u b je c ts a ttr ib u te d th e s e s ta te s a re a w a re of h a v in g th e la tte r , b u t u n a w a r e of h a v in g th e fo rm er. A ccording to h is view, th e tw o s o rts of s ta te s a re b o th cognitive s ta te s of th e following k in d . T hey a re re p re s e n ta tio n a l, c a u sa lly efficacious in th e p ro d u c tio n of th o u g h t a n d b e h a v io u r, a n d th e ir c a u s a l pow ers a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l c o n te n ts . U n c o n s c io u s p sy ch o lo g ical s ta te s q u a u n c o n s c io u s a re n o t likely to c o n s titu te a p sy ch o lo g ically in te re s tin g c la s s . H en ce, th is fe a tu re of s u b d o x a s tic s t a te s is irre le v a n t to p sy c h o lo g ic a l th e o ris in g . We, in o u r ro le a s co g n itiv e p sy c h o lo g is ts, s h o u ld free o u rs e lv e s o f o u r p re -s c ie n tific p sy c h o lo g ic a l c o n c e p ts , lik e k n o w in g ' a n d b e lie v in g ', s in c e th e

sig n ifican t n o tio n in fu tu re psychology will p ro b ab ly be so m e th in g like cognizing' (C hom sky, 1976).

It is n o t e n tir e ly c le a r w h a t C h o m s k y h a s in m in d by u n c o n sc io u s ' h e re . If w e t u r n to S tic h 's th e o ry of ta c it know ledge, we will se e h o w it is p o ss ib le to m e a n a t le a s t tw o d iffe re n t th in g s by c o n sc io u s', a n d c o n s e q u e n tly th e n e g a tio n of it. S tic h (1978) th in k s t h a t th e difference b e tw e e n su b d o x a s tic s ta te s a n d beliefs is fa r from b ein g u n im p o rta n t to cognitive psychology. S u b d o x a stic s ta te s form a n im p o rta n tly d iffe re n t c la s s of co g n itiv e s ta te s from beliefs, b e c a u s e th e y a re c o n s c io u s ly in a c c e s s ib le a n d in fe re n tia lly e n c a p s u la te d , w h e re a s beliefs a re n e ith e r.

A b e lie f is c o n s c io u s , a c c o r d in g to S tic h , if w e h a v e a c h a r a c te r is tic c o n s c io u s e x p e rie n c e w h e n o u r a tte n tio n is s u ita b ly d ra w n to th e c o n te n t o f it. G e n e ra lly , a s u b je c t w ill a s s e n t to a p ro p o sitio n t h a t sh e believes to be tru e . However, c o n sc io u s experience is only c o n n e c te d w ith v erb al a s s e n t in so fa r a s th e s u b je c t is d isp o se d to a s s e n t to a p ro p o sitio n e x p re ssin g th e c o n te n t of o n e of h e r beliefs. A sse n t a n d c o n sc io u s e x p erien c e a re in te rc o n n e c te d , b u t th e fo rm er is n o t esse n tia lly c o rre la te d w ith th e la tte r. R a th e r, it is "the experience of having a n o c c u rre n t b e lie f t h a t is a t is s u e (p. 504).

O ne im ag in es t h a t th e re m u s t b e m a n y v a rie tie s of c h a ra c te ristic c o n sc io u s e x p e rie n c e s; p e r h a p s a s m a n y a s th e re a re p sy ch o lo g ical m o d e s . F e a r , p a in , a n g e r , a n d p a s s i o n a r e a ll h ig h o n phen o m en o lo g ical im p a ct. Beliefs, o n th e o th e r h a n d , p re su m a b ly have le ss p h e n o m e n o lo g ic a l im p o rt. In d e e d , it is h a r d to im a g in e w h a t p h en o m e n o lo g y b e lie f c o u ld h a v e o th e r t h a n so m e th in g like a g u t- feeling, a feeling of reco g n itio n , o r o f u n s u r p r is e . To ta k e a n exam ple, w h en yo u a re p re s e n te d w ith th e c o n te n t of a b elief th a t y o u have, say:

(1) Paris is the capital of France

you sh o u ld h av e so m e k in d of feeling of reco g n itio n o r u n s u rp ris e . T his m ay n o t b e te rrib ly sa lie n t, b u t s h o u ld b e s a lie n t e n o u g h for y o u to be able to d istin g u is h it from th e p h en o m en o lo g y of b e in g p re s e n te d w ith th e c o n te n t of a b elief th a t y o u d o n 't h av e, say:

In t h i s c a s e , y o u s h o u ld h a v e a fe e lin g o f m ild s u r p r i s e , in fo rm a tiv e n ess, o r so m e th in g of th a t so rt. It is, a t a n y ra te , a feeling q u a lita tiv e ly d if f e r e n t fro m t h a t w h ic h (1) e lic its . H e n c e , th e p h e n o m e n o lo g y c o n n e c te d w ith b e in g p r e s e n te d w ith c o n te n ts of beliefs t h a t o n e h a s a n d c o n te n ts of beliefs t h a t o n e d o e s n o t h av e is re c o g n is a b ly d iffe re n t. O n ly in th e fo rm e r c a s e do w e h a v e a c h a ra c te ristic c o n sc io u s experience.

B eliefs h a v e ro u g h ly th e sa m e p h en o m e n o lo g y w h e th e r o r n o t th ey a re explicit o r im plicit. Take:

(3) C ars a re n 't living organism s

T h is is a tra d itio n a l ex am p le of a n im p licit b elief - a b e lie f t h a t yo u h av e n ev er co n scio u sly e n te rta in e d , b u t th a t is im plied by o th e r beliefs t h a t y o u have c o n sc io u s ly e n te rta in e d . H ow ever, a lth o u g h y o u m ay n e v e r h a v e th o u g h t of th is befo re, it is n o t like (2 ) - it is n e ith e r

su rp risin g , n o r u n fam iliar.

S u b d o x a s tic s t a t e s a r e a ls o in f e r e n tia lly im p o v e ris h e d o r e n c a p s u la te d . T h e in fe re n tia l p a tte r n s by w ay of w h ic h th e y c a n give rise to beliefs a n d beliefs c a n give rise to th e m , a re ex trem ely lim ited. Beliefs a re well in te g ra te d in to a n in fe re n tia l n e tw o rk of o th e r beliefs. F or in s ta n c e , if 1 believe t h a t Ted H o n d erich is th e a u th o r of Violence fo r E quality a n d t h a t th e a u th o r of Violence fo r E q u a lity w a s th e G rote P ro fe ss o r a t UCL, 1 c a n in fe r t h a t T ed H o n d e ric h w a s th e G ro te P ro fe sso r a t UCL. S u b d o x a s tic s ta te s m ig h t form a n in fe re n tia l w eb w ith c e r ta in o t h e r s u b d o x a s tic s t a t e s b u t n o t w ith o th e r s .