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The Paleoindian Period begins during the early Holocene. The Plains were occupied by megafauna such as mammoths, giant sloths, giant bison, and mastodons (Dyck 1983). This period includes known cultures such as Clovis, Goshen, Midland, Folsom, Agate Basin, the Cody Complex, and Terminal Paleoindian complexes. These are all distinguished by a lanceolate projectile point style.

Years (B.P.) 200 2000 3000 Late Late Late 5000 Early Middle Middle 7500 Early Early Paleo-Indian Hiatus Mulloy (1958) Historic Late Prehistoric M id dl e pr e- hi st or ic Early Prehistoric 12000

Early Plains Indian Pleistocene Hunters Walker (1992) Historic Late Prehistoric M id dl e P re- hi st or ic Paleo-Indian Frison (1978) Late Prehistoric Historic Pl ai ns A rch ai c Dyck (1983) Historic Late Plains Indian

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Clovis is the first recognizable archaeological construct on the Northern Plains dating to 11,200 to 10,900 B.P. Clovis is recognized by large projectile points that have a distinct flute and the intentional removal of the end of the basal thinning flake scar from the lateral margins as well as overshot flakes (Bradley 1993:254). Clovis tools were made with very high quality material. The short date range of Clovis suggests that this may have been the spread of an existing technology to existing people rather than a population migration, which supports the evidence for a pre-Clovis population in North America (Beck and Jones 2010:85). Clovis sites include caches, kill sites (arroyo traps and single kill sites), and processing localities (Bradley 1993:253). People used Clovis technology to hunt species such as Bison antiquus and mammoth.

There is much debate concerning how Clovis arrived in North America. Theories include an Atlantic migration, a Pacific coastal route, an inland migration route or possibly an in situ development. A commonly held theory is the migration of people through an ice-free corridor between the Cordilleran and Laurentide Ice Sheets, though evidence now supports the arrival of people from the west coast or multiple migrations through this ice free corridor. Some research shows that people migrated northward from the south (Elias 2002; Roosevelt et al. 2002) supporting evidence for a Pre-Clovis population. Beck and Jones (2010: 92) found that Clovis sites in the north are younger than those in the south, suggesting a south to north movement, questioning whether Clovis came out of the ice-free corridor.

On the Great Plains other cultures that have been recognized during this period include Goshen, the Western Stemmed Tradition, Midland, and Folsom. Goshen points are basally thinned, not fluted and made using pressure flaking (Frison 1991:45). Folsom and Midland points date to around 10,900 and 10,200 years B.P. Folsom is another fluted projectile point technology with the diagnostic flute extending almost the entire length of the point (Kooyman 2000:111). Bradley (1993:254-255) suggested that Folsom tool makers had a specialized biface manufacturing process and projectile point manufacturing technique. Midland points are very similar to Folsom projectile points but lack fluting (Walker 1999:25).

Folsom appeared rather suddenly and spread rapidly across the landscape. MacDonald (1999) discusses how high mobility would have been necessary for people to find mates and maintain economic, kinship, and social connections. Many of the sites are single or small kill events with no evidence of intensive processing (Bamforth 2001:55). Arroyos continued to be

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used to trap and kill bison (Bement 1996:94) with repeated use of the same local. Ritual has been associated with this culture (Bement 1996:92).

Agate Basin occurs from 10,500 to 9,500 years B.P. These projectile points are a lanceolate style that tapers at the base and has no definite shoulder (Kooyman 2000:113). Hell Gap is from a similar time, between 10,000 to 9,500 B.P. These lanceolate projectile points have a distinct shoulder creating a stemmed appearance.

The Cody Complex is comprised of a variety of stemmed projectile point styles. Alberta (9,500 to 9,000 B.P.) points have a short stem and abrupt shoulders. The stem is either parallel- sided or has a slight expanse with basal grinding present. Scottsbluff and Eden projectile points both date to around 8,800 to 8,400 B.P. Eden points lack a prominent stem and often the stem is subtle and created by basal grinding. These points have a distinct diamond cross-section as a result of the collateral or transverse flaking that creates a median ridge (Kooyman 2000:117). The Cody knife which is a distinct asymmetrical biface cutting tool, is also associated with this complex.

At the end of the Paleoindian Period multiple projectile point styles have been identified and termed ‘Terminal Paleoindian’. These include Angostura, Lusk, Fredrick, James Allen, Pryor Stemmed, and Lovell Constricted among others. The ages of these projectile points range from 9,900- 7,500 years B.P. (Walker 1999). They are different from the preceding Cody Complex that had point characteristics such as stems some with transverse pressure flaking. Characteristics of these terminal projectile points include being obliquely flaked, parallel-sided lanceolate points, often with concave bases. There is much variation in style in these projectile points. As well they are found across a large geographic region extending from the Northern Plains to the Southern Plains and into the foothills and mountain regions (Kornfeld et al. 2010:94).

Foothill and Mountain Paleoindian Complexes have also been identified beginning around 10,000 B.P. These sites are often in caves and demonstrate a more archaic subsistence. It is hypothesized that there is a difference in subsistence strategies between the Plains and the foothill and mountainous region throughout prehistory (Kornfeld et al. 2010:95). Examples include the Paleoindian occupations at Mummy Cave. The subsistence strategies of these occupations suggest a different strategy than those living on the plains or in the intermontane basins (Frison 1991:69). Medicine Creek Lodge also demonstrates a similar pattern (Frison

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1991:69). Husted first suggested this concept based on cave sites located along the Big Horn River (Husted 1969). Husted (1969:86) also favors the interpretation that Pryor Stemmed points may be ancestral to McKean even though a 2,000 year time gap separates these two styles. Pryor Stemmed points are typically found in the Big Horn Mountain region to southwestern Montana (Husted 1969:86).