Coleman (2010, pp.488-489), when referring to the study of digital media, had the following to say about the use of ethnography:
“To grasp more fully the broader significance of digital media, its study must involve various frames of analysis, attention to history, and the local contexts and lived expectations of digital media – a task well suited to the ethnographic
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Domingo (2003) summarised some of the pros and cons of the ethnographic method for research into online journalism, updating the suggestions made by Schlesinger (1980) about the use of ethnography in media research and incorporating his own experiences in online news rooms (Table 3.2).
Table 3.2: Pros and Cons of ethnographic methodology for research into online journalism (Domingo, 2003, p.3).
After his experiences, Domingo (2003) recommends the use of ethnographic observations to get a deeper understanding of developments in media, the use of technology and its social meaning. However, a lot has changed within news media between Schlesinger’s (1980) study from the 70’s and Domingo’s (2003) study. The creation of twenty-four hour rolling news; decline in newspaper readership and increase
Pros Cons
Gathers lots of rich first hand data. Observation can be time consuming. Direct observation of patterns, routines and
social and technological interactions.
Difficult to record everything that is going on around, especially when it comes to the use of technology.
Researcher can gain an insiders point of view. Those being observed may resist the study. Researchers can witness conflict, changes
and evolution.
Maybe difficult to generalise the results of the study.
Analysis provides in-depth descriptions of the use of technology and provides
understanding of the factors involved in its social construct.
The researcher needs to be aware of their opinions in order to avoid negative impacts on the study.
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in online readership; introduction of digital communication technologies; computers taking over from typewriters; further extension of transnational conglomerate media giants; extension of citizen journalists and development of new media products have all impacted on the way newsrooms work (Klinenberg, 2005). Despite this, the increased use of digital technologies within newsrooms has not necessarily created new problems when it comes to carrying out ethnography, but may have exacerbated them.
Observation of working practices has always been difficult, even in the pre-digital age. In Schlesinger's time (1970’s-1980’s), the use of technologies, such as typewriters and telephones, made direct observation and recording of all practices difficult. With the implementation of digital technologies, such as email, instant messaging, blogging, social media, etc., into newsrooms and communications groups, practices may have become further concealed (in effect, black boxed), making observing and tracing along these channels difficult. While digital traces of communications exist, such as email correspondence, gaining access to them can be problematic. The decentralisation of news production, whereby news sites can be edited and updated from outside the traditional walls of the newsroom, makes this type of research even more problematic. As described, the increase in digital technologies may have exacerbated the issue of access within observations, but it is not new to digital newsrooms. This indicates that despite changes in technologies, proven methodologies such as ethnography remain relevant in the digital age if adapted to new contexts, and can still be used to answer questions relating to the working practices of specific groups. Ethnography can allow
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researchers to gather rich empirical data to find the way in which technology is used, the factors that influence its use and social relations that are formed around technology, as well as the continuity or change in associated practices. As such, ethnographic
approaches were deemed appropriate to use within this thesis when exploring the working practices and technology use of researchers and communication professionals at CERN.
Domingo (2005) also points out that empirical research using surveys or content analysis alone will often ignore the historical perspective of technological development and the social context of the online newsroom. Boczkowski (2002) explains that when actual practices are not observed, researchers cannot gain a full understanding of how
technology enters a society and how it impacts on practices. Therefore researchers “may build analysis upon a usually taken-for-granted technologically deterministic matrix” Boczkowski (2002, p.279).
More recently, Cottle (2007) argued that an ethnographic approach for the study of newsrooms and news production could help reveal the constraints, contingencies and complexities with the newsroom and provide a greater understanding of the processes behind news production. Paterson and Domingo (2008, p.2) also argue only
ethnographic methodologies can “come close to providing adequate descriptions of the culture and practices of media production and the mind-set of media producers”. Such research would be all but impossible using other methods, such as surveys and content
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analysis, alone. Yet these methods can also offer valuable insight into the process of communication, especially when used along with ethnography as part of a mixed
methods approach. Analysis of media content, for example, can help explore the content of media products, while ethnography can provide an insight into their production and potentially their reception37. Together this can provide a deeper understanding of
communication as a whole.
Domingo (2005), in his review of studies into online journalism up to 2004, described how much of the research focused on the content of online news articles, attitudes towards online news and audience reception, rather than the context of online news rooms and changes in practices brought about by new digital technologies. Singer (2008) also notes how these early online newsroom studies were orientated towards
identifying best practices for this new form of digital journalism. Paterson and Domingo (2008) felt this lack of research into the production of online news came down to issues of access. The issue of access is explored further by the likes of Batabyal (2007), Garcia (2004), Silverstone (1985) and Tuchman (2002). This problem of access highlights one of the limitations of ethnography; it can be intrusive, requiring significant commitment from those under study without any guarantees of what might be found. It requires those under study to ‘trust’ in what the researcher is doing and be open to possible
37 See Chapter 1, Section 1.4.1 for a discussion of Thompson (1988) and the production, content and
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criticism. Professional experience can go some way to help facilitate access and reduce these issues (Paterson and Zoellner, 2010). Relevant experience in the field of journalism also gives a better understanding of what's being observed from the outset, as well as helping to increase disclosure from those journalists and media professionals being studied. For a researcher this can be extremely valuable. In his ethnographic study of four Spanish newsrooms, Domingo (2003) found his previous experience as a journalism student meant he had an understanding of the professional mindset of journalists and the routines of news making. This allowed his initial period of observation, that time when a researcher learns the rules, routines and roles of a group, to be much shorter. Yet many researchers would argue that going into a field with limited experience can also be valuable, as it allows the researcher to distance themselves from what is going on around them, reducing potential researcher bias (Paterson and Zoellner, 2010). As a joint project between the OU and CERN, and due to CERN's attitude towards openness, issues over access were reduced within this thesis, with negotiations taking place before the start of the thesis. Despite this, negotiations were still required
throughout the study to gain access to participants, attend meetings and for permission to make audio recordings as needed. With no professional experience working in a Communications Group, my initial periods of observations during the pilot study were crucial in gaining an early insight into the culture and working practices of the group. During this time I observed a broad range of practices, switching to a more focused
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approach during the main study when areas of interest had been identified (see Section 3.3.5).