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Attachment theory is a means of describing the need and nature of people to

make and maintain close affectional bonds with others and explaining the

emotional distress that can result from separation or loss. A basic

assumption of attachment theory is that the survival of immature and

vulnerable infants at birth depends on an adult caregiver to protect and

nurture them. Infants and caregivers develop complementary behaviours that

maintain their proximity and relationship. Closeness in the relationship

promotes feelings of love and security whereas interruptions can initiate

anger and sadness. Bowlby (1982) argued therefore that attachment is an

Attachment theory was originally developed by Bowlby (1982) whose work

in child psychiatry led him to become dissatisfied with explanations of

childhood problems from the traditional Freudian perspective adhered to by

his colleagues. This was mainly because analysis of problems was

retrospective rather than being based on direct observation of children

(Wollheim, 1971). For a Freudian the patients account of past relationships

is seen to reflect fantasy as much as reality and Bowlby, while considering

himself a psychoanalyst, was determined to base his theorising on reliable

observations. The main difference in Bowlby’s approach was to look at the

relationships formed in childhood and track them to later patterns of

response. His ideas were initially rejected by the psychoanalytic

establishment but they have gradually become influential in the areas of

social development and relationships (Rutter, 1995).

Bowlby (1982) noted that Freud recognised the limits of retrospective

psychoanalysis, firstly, because the relative influence of different factors

causing problems were unknown and secondly because the factors identified

were not necessarily comprehensive. Bowlby argued that attachment theory

had parallels with a psychoanalytic view and could be seen as similar and

different for the following reasons:

• they share the concept of relationships being influenced by

trauma relating to an event or causal conditions,

• the agreement that early childhood is a particularly vulnerable

• they differ in the way they explain motivation behind

relationships,

• Freud's interest in the broader aspects of psychology would

mean that his attention would have been attracted to other

concepts and developments.

Bowlby (1982) developed the concept of attachment in relation to internal

working models and while retaining some ideas from psychoanalysis, ie. the

role of unconscious mental processes, repression as an active process

keeping them unconscious and the origins of neurosis in childhood as major

influences on behaviour.

Attachment theory has developed from the concept of 'object relations'

developed by others, eg. Klein and Winnicott, the main difference being in

the influences of other disciplines, eg. control theory, which have been used

to define instinctive behaviour. Instead of object relations Bowlby (1982)

used the term 'internal working model' to describe the mental or internal

representation of the world, past and present interpersonal interactions,

attachment figures and self. According to Bowlby (1982) past experiences

become internalised to form mental states or internal models which Main,

Kaplan and Cassidy (1985, p66) defined as " a set of rules for the

organisation of information relevant to attachment and for limiting access to

that information".

Internal working models allow a form of short - cut in mental processes,

previous experiences, situations and self without having to rethink every

situation from the beginning. Emotional and cognitive processes are actively

and continually represented and reappraised consciously and unconsciously

in the manner of a control system with a set goal, comparator and constant

feedback.

These mental representations rely on feedback and are seen as resistant to

change (Steele and Steele, 1994). However they also retain some flexibility

and may be modified in the light of development and experience

(Bretherton, 1999, Sroufe, 1988). The purpose of these representations

which include emotion, cognition, and behaviour enable a person to predict

how attachment figures will behave and how they view themselves.

Ideas about internal working models have changed since Bowlby (1982) first

suggested the notion in relation to attachment theory in 1969. Now they are

viewed as developing from early childhood and can be linked to another

developmental theorist, ie. Piaget. It has also been suggested that

interactions and real life events become Representations of Interactions that

have become Generalised (RIGs) and these form an intermediate stage

before new information is incorporated into internal working models

(Bretherton, 1999, Steele and Steele, 1994, Stem 1985).

The idea of instinctive behaviour is based on the idea of a biological control

which promotes proximity seeking in young children. Bowlby (1982)

viewed attachment as an instinctive behaviour in the same class of

behaviours as feeding or mating, with parallels in other species. There is

features can be seen in the care of infants and children and the attachment of

young to their parents; these are examples of instinctive behaviour. These

behaviours are not the same as those of animal species but can be seen to be

derived from them in a more complex and sophisticated form. Bowlby

(1982) identifies 4 main characteristics of instinctive behaviour:

• it follows a similar pattern in all members of a species / sex,

• it is a sequence that follows a predictable course,

• it contributes to self - preservation,

• it develops even when the circumstances for learning are scarce or

absent.

Instinctive behaviour is seen by Bowlby as environmentally stable, ie. as

long as the environment stays within an acceptable range of normal, the

behaviour will conform to a particular pattern. Attachment behaviour is used

to name observable regularities in behaviour which are essential for the

survival of human young.

The actual nature of the control system associated with attachment and how

it works is not yet explained. For example, although ideas have been

postulated it is still not clear exactly what initiates attachment behaviours

The main generalisations of attachment theory (Bowlby, 1981) are:

• attachment behaviours are biologically determined and result in

attracting or retaining the proximity of a particular person;

• The behaviour is seen as different from but as significant as feeding

and sexual behaviours;

• during a child's development attachment behaviour leads to the

making of firstly affectional bonds between child and parents and

then on to adult / adult bonds. The behaviour and bonds persist

throughout the life cycle. These bonds may also change or break

with, eg. loss and separation experiences (Bowlby, 1988);

• the goal of attachment is to maintain proximity / communication

with attachment figure/s through instinctive behaviour. The

achievement of the goal is self regulated and behaviour is adjusted to

elicit the required response;

• with a well established attachment bond behaviour will have adapted

and proximity or communication may only be required in states of

distress or change;

• the development, maintenance and renewal of attachment

relationships create intense emotions. Formation and maintenance of

a bond create joy and security. Equally the loss or threat of the loss

• attachment behaviour is considered to be a characteristic of not only

humans but also other species in order to improve survival rate, eg.

to protect from harm and to nurture offspring;

• caregiving is a behaviour which complements attachment and

is commonly shown not only by a parent to a child but also from

adult to adult in times of stress, eg. in relation to loss;

• the main influence on a person's attachment behaviour is the

experience with attachment figures during the early years of life;

infancy, childhood and adolescence. This in turn influences the

affectional bonds that are made during life;

• disturbed or insecure patterns of attachment can be present at any age

due to previous attachment experiences.