La inteligencia emocional dentro del funcionamiento global del cerebro humano

A large body of literature has identified barriers that inhibit teachers’ use of ICT in education and sustain the low-level uses that dominate (e.g., Ertmer, 1999; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004). Identification of barriers has led to various strategies being proposed for overcoming the barriers and supporting more effective integration of ICT.

Barriers

Barriers are often classified as either external, also referred to as first order, or internal, second order barriers (Ertmer, 1999; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004). First order barriers are factors relating to the school. They are extrinsic to teachers and hence generally outside their control. They include lack of resources, ineffective training, lack of support and lack of time to develop skills and confidence (Ertmer, 1999; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004; Mumtaz, 2000). Many studies also identify curriculum and assessment as external barriers, as despite shifts in learning theory, curriculum and assessment policy has remained largely unchanged from industrial age approaches where prescribed content and high stakes assessment dominated (e.g., Hennessy, Ruthven, & Brindley, 2005; Hew & Brush, 2007; Somekh, 2008). In addition, subject culture, according to some researchers, can create resistance to using ICT in some subjects and a sense of ownership in others where there is greater connection between the subject’s history and ICT practice, such as business studies (Hew & Brush, 2007; Selwyn, 1999).

Second order barriers are intrinsic to the teacher. They include lack of teacher knowledge, skills and confidence in using ICT and negative teacher attitudes and beliefs about the value and use of ICT in education (Ertmer, 1999; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004; Knezek & Christensen, 2008; Mumtaz, 2000; Somekh, 2008).

Attitudes relate to people’s positive or negative feelings towards something, and are generally underpinned by people’s beliefs and values (Hew & Brush, 2007). Teachers’ pedagogical beliefs include beliefs about cognition and learning, the purposes of education, the purposes and nature of their subject and how their subject should be taught. These beliefs influence teachers’ pedagogical practices. Teachers’ beliefs about the relevance and value of ICT also influence their attitudes towards ICT for teaching in general and their subject in particular.

First order barriers are considered more straightforward to address than second order barriers as generally they can be overcome by providing more resources and training. However, as already mentioned (see Section 1.2.2); simply providing more resources, which was the focus of much of the early intervention to enhance integration, does not automatically lead to significant change in pedagogy. Rather, first order changes on their own often lead to only minor adjustments to teachers’ practice (Ertmer, 1999). As Wright (2010) cautions “teachers who use digital tools to replace older technology, but use them without altering their pedagogy, will have minimal effects on learning” (p. 38). These approaches reflect technocentric uses and leave teachers’ underlying beliefs unchanged. Hence they fail to achieve the transformative vision for technology integration.

Second order barriers are generally considered much more difficult to address than first order barriers because they involve challenging teachers’ fundamental beliefs about pedagogy (Ertmer, 1999, 2005). Teachers’ beliefs are likely formed through personal experience over many years, first as a school student, and later as a teacher, where they are reinforced by routines of practice in their subject discipline and by the expectations of students (Albion & Ertmer, 2002). Beliefs act as filters when people process new information and therefore early experiences impact on people’s perceptions of subsequent events. People filter new information through their belief systems before gradually constructing new knowledge, and therefore changing beliefs is a slow process (Ertmer & Ottenbreit- Leftwich, 2010). For teachers who continue to hold more traditional pedagogical beliefs, a radical shift is required to integrate ICT effectively. For these teachers, addressing first order barriers alone is insufficient, as it is the combination of the technology tools and teachers’ pedagogy that is at the heart of effective

integration (Wright, 2010). Hence, teacher beliefs are critical in effective technology integration.

While the provision of ICT resources and connectivity in schools has significantly increased in New Zealand and many other countries in recent years, research suggests that these and other external barriers still exist (2020 Communications Trust, 2011, 2014; Becker, 2000; Bolstad et al., 2012; Ertmer et al., 2012; Somekh, 2008). Hence, even when teachers already hold student-centred beliefs, first order barriers such as pre-determined curricula and assessment practices, as well as time and access constraints can inhibit the use of student-centred classroom practices when integrating ICT (Somekh, 2008).

Many studies also show that complex interrelationships exist both within and between various internal and external barriers (Ertmer, 1999; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004; Zhao & Frank, 2003). These interrelationships add to the complexity of devising strategies to increase and enhance integration of ICT. They may also help to explain why it is so difficult for teachers to integrate ICT, and hence why the pace and nature of change has been limited. Clearly, addressing one barrier alone without considering how it may interact with other barriers is unlikely to achieve significant change.

Enablers

A significant body of literature identifies enabling factors and strategies that support effective integration of ICT. Often enablers are the opposite of barriers but, as suggested above, no single enabling factor on its own is likely to lead to significant change. Rather, strategies for overcoming barriers generally include various combinations of factors.

Change in teacher pedagogy is clearly the ultimate requirement for effective integration of ICT and there is considerable consensus that focusing on changing teacher beliefs is central to developing more student-centred pedagogies (e.g., Bolstad et al., 2012; Ertmer et al., 2012; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Falloon, 1999; Voogt, 2010). Generally, research identifies a range of factors,

both external and internal, together with changing teacher beliefs, as important in enabling successful integration. These include:

 developing teachers’ ICT knowledge, skills and confidence;

 teachers being professionally engaged and committed to student learning and to their own self-development;

 positive teacher attitudes towards ICT and perceptions of the relevance and value of ICT to their subject;

 teacher support and professional development;

 convenient and equitable access to ICT for teachers in all subject areas;  better alignment of curriculum and assessment policy with social

constructivist and twenty first century views of learning; and,  school vision and leadership.

Teacher beliefs about the value and relevance of ICT for teaching in their subject affect their attitudes towards technology and are also considered to be influential in their decisions about if, when and how to use ICT in the classroom (Baggott La Velle, McFarlane, & Brawn, 2003; Christensen & Knezek, 2008; Ertmer, 1999; Ertmer et al., 2012; Hew & Brush, 2007; Somekh, 2008; Zhao & Frank, 2003). Because a large proportion of current teachers did not experience using ICT in their own schooling, it is unlikely that they will have prior experiences upon which to build conceptions about how it should be used in teaching (Ertmer, 2005). Hence teachers’ perceptions and beliefs about using ICT are likely to differ in terms of how they view the relevance, value and purpose of using ICT in education and how it might be used in the classroom.

Research also indicates close links between teachers’ beliefs and attitudes and their competence and confidence using ICT (Christensen & Knezek, 2008; Ertmer et al., 2012; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). In a small study of award- winning ICT-using teachers Ertmer et al. (2012) concluded that increasing teachers’ knowledge and skills may be the best way to enhance integration because of the potential this has to positively influence teachers’ attitudes and

beliefs. However, some researchers suggest that teacher self-efficacy may be the most critical factor (Albion & Ertmer, 2002; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). These researchers argue that even though a teacher may believe in the value of integrating ICT, this may not be sufficient if they lack the confidence to implement it in the classroom. Christensen and Knezek maintain that computer anxiety is less of an issue for teachers now except for those who are true novices in terms of their ICT knowledge and skills.

Three strategies suggested for increasing teacher confidence align with suggested strategies for promoting change in teacher beliefs about teaching and learning in general, and about ICT specifically. These include: personal experiences, vicarious experiences and sociocultural influences (Albion & Ertmer, 2002; Ertmer, 2005; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010). When teachers have opportunities to gain personal experiences that are successful, this can increase their confidence and lead to changes in beliefs. In particular, observing how ICT can facilitate student success can be a powerful motivator for change. Vicarious experiences, such as observing others’ successful teaching, can increase teachers’ perceived need for change and help to convince them that change is possible and beneficial. Furthermore, teachers’ practice and beliefs are not only shaped by their own experiences but also by those around them and therefore they can be influenced by others in the sociocultural setting. It is also possible that attitudes may generally become more positive over time, with ongoing training and experience helping to increase competence for many teachers (Christensen & Knezek, 2008; Cowie et al., 2007).

A combination of adequate teacher ICT knowledge and skill, sufficient classroom access to computers and student-centred pedagogy is commonly identified as important for successful integration (Becker, 2000). Teacher motivation and commitment to student learning, as well as teacher professional engagement and commitment to their own development, are also identified as contributing factors (Becker & Ravitz, 2001; Mumtaz, 2000; Voogt, 2010). Becker and Ravitz describe professional engagement as frequent involvement in professional activities, such as substantive conversation and classroom observation with peers, participation on committees, mentoring and giving workshops.

Some argue that the affordances of digital technologies themselves may help disrupt teacher-centred practice and support change in the teacher’s role in the classroom, gradually influencing pedagogical change (Baggott La Velle et al., 2003; Becker & Ravitz, 1999; Somekh, 2008; Webb & Cox, 2004; Wright, 2010). For example, Becker and Ravitz’s (1999) survey research in 153 schools in the United States showed a clear link between teachers’ sustained use of computers and the Internet, and an increase in constructivist teaching practices and potentially also their underlying pedagogical beliefs. However, Becker and Ravitz (1999) indicated that there were favourable conditions in the participating schools involved in terms of technological infrastructure and social support networks, which must also be taken into consideration. Furthermore, they suggest there is uncertainty about whether these teachers were already inclined towards a constructivist pedagogy and access to technology supported this shift, or whether the experience itself led teachers to change their pedagogic philosophies. Wright (2010), in her e-learning literature review, suggests that student-centred pedagogies may develop because they are a better fit with the way students prefer to use technologies. While Webb and Cox (2004) also agree that there is evidence of this effect, they suggest that it may not be widespread and it is likely that teachers’ beliefs as well as their knowledge of affordances of ICT are contributing factors.

Teacher support, both external and in-school, is commonly identified as a contributing factor in successful integration. Many studies emphasise the importance of leadership and creating a shared vision for ICT integration in schools (e.g., Cowie et al., 2007; Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010; Hew & Brush, 2007; Somekh, 2008). Also recommended are professional learning networks, and opportunities to collaborate with other teachers both in their own and other schools. Onsite collaboration, such as ongoing conversations with colleagues, shared planning and sustained supportive networks, are important in supporting teachers to critically analyse and improve their practice (Ertmer, 1999; Ertmer et al., 2012; Hennessy et al., 2005; Mitchell, Bailey, & Monroe, 2007; Voogt, 2010). Cowie et al.’s (2007) evaluation of the New Zealand TELA laptops scheme also found that teachers identified collegial support as the most valuable professional development for using ICT, especially when it was from same-

subject colleagues. Some researchers advocate for teacher support and ICT professional development to have a more explicit focus on developing teacher pedagogy (Billowes & Alexander, 2010; Bolstad et al., 2012; Palak & Walls, 2009).

In terms of developing teachers’ pedagogy and perceptions of the value of ICT, some argue that the best approach is to provide time for teachers to explore the affordances of ICT through play (Somekh, 2008; Zhao & Frank, 2003). These studies suggest that by exploring the affordances and gaining experience using ICT, teachers begin to build mental models of their use, which enable them to imagine new ways of using them. Zhao and Frank (2003) also suggest that teachers may change their pedagogical beliefs in this way and begin to see more uses for and benefits of using ICT in their teaching. They suggest that when teachers do not have sufficient time or access to explore the tool they begin by trying to fit it into their existing practices, which results in low-level uses. Having flexibility in where and when teachers could use their laptops was also reported as an important factor in supporting teacher development of ICT knowledge and skills in the New Zealand TELA laptops scheme (Cowie et al., 2007).

While huge investment has been made in increasing access to ICT and the Internet in schools over several decades, and on the whole it is considered to be less of an issue in recent times, access is still considered a constraint by many teachers. Hence, improved access is commonly included with other enabling factors in successful integration (Baggott La Velle et al., 2003; Becker & Ravitz, 2001; Bolstad et al., 2012; Hew & Brush, 2007; Jones, 2004; Mumtaz, 2000). However, as already mentioned, as BYOD policies (still in their infancy in New Zealand schools) are increasingly implemented in schools, access barriers may decrease (see Section 2.3.4).

Access to resources is more complex than just providing computers in schools. How those resources are organised is also important. Selwyn (1999) stresses the importance of making ICT easily accessible for all subjects to use. When computer access is only available in computer labs, this can make them much less accessible for some subject teachers than for others, as was the case in this study.

Research suggests that having computers in both labs and the classroom more effectively supports integration in non ICT classes (classes where ICT is not the subject focus), (Becker & Ravitz, 2001; Jones, 2004; Selwyn, 1999; Zhao, Pugh, Sheldon, & Byers, 2002). Becker and Ravitz (2001) found that providing four or five computers in each classroom led to more frequent use than when access was only available in computer labs. Papert (1994) asserts that the initial establishment of computer labs occurred when more computers became available in schools and the organisation became the responsibility of administrators. According to Papert, the resulting introduction of computer labs controlled by specialist teachers, and ICT as a separate subject, were influential in the focus on teaching decontextualized computer skills. Jones (2004) suggests that ICT access in secondary schools may be more effectively organised around the particular needs of individual departments. However, he also suggests that the success of either approach will be dependent on effective classroom management.

Selwyn’s (1999) research highlights the significant influence of subject cultures on ICT use in schools. While this is an older study, the influence of subject culture is relevant to the findings presented in this thesis. Selwyn suggests a hierarchy exists in terms of subject access to computer labs, with ICT subject classes generally having priority access and dominating the use of these facilities and some subject areas considered higher priority than others. In addition to access difficulties, subjects were found to differ in their cultures of interest in ICT. As Selwyn points out, just as people’s views of subject areas are socially constructed, so are their views of the nature and value of ICT use in education. For many students and teachers, computer use was found to be inherently at odds with their conception of learning in their subject area.

Voogt (2008) further suggests that realising the full potential of ICT in the curriculum will require review of curriculum content, goals and assessment, which are largely beyond teachers’ control. While policy makers emphasise the important role of ICT in preparing students for the Knowledge Society and challenge education to change, at the same time they require evidence about the impact of ICT on student learning based on current curriculum goals that only partially align with twenty first century goals. This view is well supported in

research literature (e.g., Bolstad et al., 2012; Cuban et al., 2001; Ertmer et al., 2012; Somekh, 2008).

The focus of this thesis is specifically on integrating WBRs in the classroom as opposed to other ICT applications. In particular, it focuses on integrating WBRs in the subject discipline of technology education at secondary school level. While the barriers and enablers described in this section apply to ICT in broad and general terms, they are equally relevant to the integration of WBRs.