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There are different perspectives regarding education for ‘acceptable’ journalism (Beattie, Tumber & Webster, 2006, Josephi, 2009), but there is little analysis or investigation into adequately preparing professionals to cover war. What preparation does exist is mainly based on training foreign, not local, correspondents to go to war (Tumber & Wesbter, 2006, Becker & Lowrey, 2000). One could argue that this minor area of research is in its preliminary stages, and currently there is little analysis of local media workers living and reporting in dangerous environments, and even less on support provided by media organisations to their employees who work in dangerous zones.

Specialised training outside academia has in some places been established as a response to concerns about the lack of preparation which journalists covering conflict receive. Such training has been provided by non-profit, media, and government organisation since the early 1990s. In the beginning they were usually given by former military personnel (Tumber, 2005). This training was focused on embedded journalists, mainly European or North American, who were covering international conflicts in developing countries, but rapidly became a requirement of media organisations for journalists covering war in general; several charitable organisations and media organisations began to invest in their journalists’ education in this way. In several cases, specialised training is in- house (e.g., CNN’s training scheme). The most well-known firms that give

courses in the United States and the United Kingdom are Centurion Risk Assessment Services and AKE Integrated Risk Solutions. It is interesting to note that former members of the British military manage both enterprises (Sector, 2006). The Pentagon additionally has a weekly course which prepares journalists for embedding. Independent private firms also provide training covering life- threatening scenarios, first aid, mock hostage situations, enduring captivity, crossing checkpoints, and other topic. This training is vital for both experienced and inexperienced reporters (Tumber & Webster, 2006).

Among the non-profit organisations that give such training are the Dart Centre for Journalism & Trauma (A project of the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism)75, and the Knight Foundation, as do various NGOs and the International Red Cross (whose course covers international humanitarian law, safety, and ethics). Regarding safety training, American organisations such as the Society of Professional Journalists76 (SPR) and the Rory Peck Trust77 also provide resources to journalists assigned to war. The latter provides safety training to freelance media workers globally. The SPR provides a fact sheet to help journalists to obtain foreign press credentials when covering a war outside their country. Reporters Without Borders (RWB) offers a guide called Safety

Resources for Journalists Travelling Abroad (2011). Given that the protection of

journalists in war zones has recently developed into a crucial issue, the United Nations has declared a Security Council resolution in support of the protection of journalists.

Consequently UNESCO, in partnership with RWB, has released a ‘Handbook for Journalists’ (2009), intended for war reporters abroad, which covers safety guidelines, international protection norms (e.g., BBC guidelines), and psychological trauma (in cooperation with the Dart Centre of Journalistic Trauma). The handbook also gathers key documents for journalists’ protection in

75 _{Dart Centre was founded in 1991, is a project of journalists, journalism academia and health} profesionals.

76 _{This organisation has around 10,000 American journalists as members, and was founded in} 1909. It provides various workshops and programmes (Legal defence fund, Freedom of Information, Responsible Journalism, and others).

77

This organisation focuses on freelancers, and was founded in 1995. It provides support for journalists and resources, training, and advice.

war zones, and discusses the role of the media in humanitarian emergencies, in addition to the types of protection offered by Reporters Without Borders, and notes on how to manage traumatic stress. Finally, basic documents relating to press freedom are provided, as are key documents on journalistic ethics—this last being perhaps a reminder of the role of journalists in conflict. Given that there is significant diversity in journalists’ educational backgrounds, and only a minority have completed degrees in journalism or communication (Deuze, 2005), the need of specialised training is clear. In the context of hostilities, a lack of professional and specialised training is detrimental to the journalist.

All these examples are fundamental to the journalist’s safety in war zones, yet they are mostly based on the Western perspective of war correspondents covering war abroad. Although some of the advice and certain information can be used by all types of reporters (e.g., first aid, safety, ethics), it is imperative to develop handbooks and training for regional and national journalists covering the violence within their countries.

In this sense, the education of media professionals is a key topic that has emerged in the interviews performed for this research. Continuous professional training has resulted in a valuable tool for journalists, especially for those covering conflicts. The majority of the journalists interviewed had a significant educational background in covering conflict, in international humanitarian law, in human rights, and in ethics, given by Colombian NGOs (e.g., Medios para la Paz) and international organisations (Red Cross). These journalists are self-motivated, energetic, and the majority are well established in their organisations, with successful careers in journalism. However, such training is obtained only by a limited number of journalists, and to some extent this is a ‘privileged’ group of journalists that is characterised by having sufficient resources to cover the course and transportation, time outside working hours, and willingness to reflect on and complement their training. Conversely, for some—particularly older male journalists at national US newspapers—journalism training is ‘an oxymoron’ (Franklin, 2006: 62). This situation occurs in Latin America, too (see García Márquez, 1996).

Thus the crucial question may well be whether or not specialised training is necessary for war journalists. The data from this research shows that the majority of reporters agree that media outlets do not support them with resources to help them obtain professional specialised training. A large number of media organisations in Colombia do not establish any further education goals for their staff, making it harder for them to obtain further instruction, especially when one considers that in certain cases (press, radio) the low salary received by journalist does not permit them to cover the costs of training by themselves. Obtaining further education is thus almost unachievable for some regional journalists. Freelancers, for example, have long working hours and low wages, and so there is no time for education, which could be regarded as a luxury. Frequently; however, neither city nor regional journalists have enough time to attend training sessions, or else cannot afford the fee for the course. ‘There is not enough time to report on news and even less to study journalism and peace (....) sometimes it is because of a lack of interest, but in many cases it’s because of the lack of support from the media outlet where the journalists work’ (Gutiérrez, city journalist).