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In the period of 2001-2008, hurricanes and cyclones including tropical cyclones are reported as the major factors of disruption in maritime-related operations. Alexander and Irwin (2005), Brown (2008), Coy et al. (2005), Shultz (2006), Seba (2008) analyse the impact of Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Dolly on ports, and shipping channels in the US, including the unavailability of some important services especially for ships and cargoes. Due to the severe weather conditions, maritime services were disrupted in terms of delay, deviation, stoppage and loss of service platform for containerised, dry, and liquid bulk cargoes.

Frittelli (2005) reports that in 2005, Hurricane Katrina had considerably increased port disruptions by including much higher shipping costs, as well as transport capacity shortages in terms of grain exports. A further point is that the disruption events by Hurricane Katrina had significantly reduced the port service level by 50 per cent. It resumed partial service after six months (particularly on cargo handling operation) due to the damage of handling cranes, considerable damage of port buildings, railroads, key truck-link, bridges, and shipping channels in the Port of New Orleans, Baton Rouge, South Louisiana, Gulfport, Mobile, Alabama, and Pascagoula.

The impact of cyclones in generating disruptive events on maritime operations was considerable during the period of 2005-2007 (Drum 2007; Yank 2007; Gurning 2008, 2008). The destruction of the Mississippi River in the US due to tropical cyclones in 2005-2006 reduced the ship traffic using this river to the Ports of New Orleans, Baton Rouge, South Louisiana, Gulfport, Mobile, Alabama, and Pascagoula by two-thirds. Studies on the impact of tropical cyclones in Indonesia show that wave levels after the cyclones remained higher than the normal calm sea conditions in the year 2007 (Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika 2007; Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika 2008) and that higher wave levels and strong winds were factors in creating maritime disruptions. Other reports of the cyclone impact on LNG and crude-oil terminals (Qalhat LNG terminal in Iran and Mina Al Fahal in Oman) resulted in terminal closure for 14-18 days (Drum 2007; Yank 2007). However, these reports have no damage and impact analysis to confirm the findings.

Available reports between 2007 and 2009 indicate the significant rate of occurrence of interruptions of port and shipping operations (Mahbub 2007; Gurning 2008; Gurning & Cahoon 2009). The reports found 20 impacts of maritime disruptive events in Indonesian ports, inter-island shipping, short-sea shipping, inland road, and coastal areas (as shown in Table 3-5). The reports of Gurning and Cahoon (2009) and Mahbub (2007) indicate four main instigators that create essential disruptions in the maritime operations internally due to severe weather conditions in Indonesia such as the increase of wind speed, the higher wave level, and the increase of sea and tidal level. High winds and waves from the regional cyclones render ports out of service due to navigational warnings by which freight for short-sea and inter-island shipping are not allowed to be operated due to safety considerations. The real economic impacts however, were the higher price of food commodities including grain and wheat-based products in the range of 200-250 per cent, and longer lead-time (50 to 70 per cent from the average level) due to unavailability of certain shipping services from three days to two weeks.

The Australian Transport Safety Bureau (2007) reports the impact of major storms that cause considerable higher disruptive events at Newcastle Port in 2007 compared to the period of 2004-2006. The severe weather conditions during that year generated a significant increase of ship queue numbers, interrupted the rail connection because of flooding and the closure of the port as a result of a ship grounding in the port channel. Further, the wide effects of various disruptive events due to severe weather considerably increased demurrage costs, decreases of the coal throughput of the port and consequently lowering the coal chain capacity from that region to overseas markets. Maritime users consider these conditions as being specific operational problems that create additional costs within a supply chain (Berry & Linda 2003; Mahbub 2007) if port users and cargo owners do not anticipate the extent to which their freight and supply chain will be impacted. Hence, the instigating factors of severe weather conditions and their impacts beyond the maritime leg will be explored in detail in the case of Australian-Indonesian wheat supply chain.

Table 3-5. Instigators and impacts on domestic maritime services in Indonesia in the period 2007-2009. INSTIGATORS IMPACTS Po rt Sh ip p in g In te r- isl an d Sh o rt -se a S h ip p in g In lan d r o ad C o astal ar e a

Increased wind speed

Increased vulnerability of structures x - - - x

Reduce the working hour of port equipment x - - - -

Reduced capacity of port service x x x x -

Increased wave agitation in port basin x - - - -

Exposure decks of wharf and jetties x - - - -

Higher wave level

Increased overtopping to decks and jetties x - - - -

Reduced regularity of the port x - - - -

The closure of ferry terminal x x x - -

Increased port damages x - - - -

Vessel speed reduction - x x - -

Detour of shipping route x x x - -

Frequent shipping delay - x x - -

Unavailability of ferry service x x x - -

Increase in sea-level

Problems with bridge clearance - x x - -

Low land flooding x - - x x

Congestion at port road accessibility x - - x -

Congestion around ferry terminal x - x x -

Higher tidal level

Problems in ship's manoeuvring x x x - -

Increased damage to coastal channel x x x - x

Changed dredging requirements x - - - - Source: Adapted from PIANC (2009)