A research design is a strategic framework of action that connects the research question, goal and objectives as well as the implementation of the research. Research designs are plans that guide the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. As a strategic framework for action, research designs should specify a serious of activities, which will
ensure that valid conclusions can be drawn from research (Terre Blanche, Durrhein & Painter, 2006).
The researcher has used an exploratory design to explore the teachers‘ perceptions regarding various factors contributing to parents‘ involvement or non-involvement in public schools in Botwana. Exploratory research is used by the researcher to gain insight into a situation, phenomenon, community or individuals (Blaikie, 2000). There is little information about parental involvement in schools in Botswana available, therefor the exploratory design is an appropriate design exactly where there is little existing knowledge related to the research question available. Exploratory studies seek to explore what is happening and then ask questions about it (De Vos et al., 2011). This study explored perceptions of teachers about parental involvement in schools, to gain new insights in parental involvement in schools and the factors that influence parental involvement especially in rural, as well as urban schools. It was appropriate because little knowledge is available on non-western and specifically the Botswana context of experiences about parental involvement.
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting or relationship, and focus on ―how‖ - and “why” questions (Kreuger & Neuman, 2006). The descriptive design is a method of accurately describing the phenomenon and forming an overall picture of the subject. It is an intensive examination of a phenomenon, it provides a deeper meaning and leads to a thick description of the problem (De Vos et al., 2011). In this study the researcher applied descriptive research during the data analysis. The findings are represented in chapter four (Chapter 4: Findings of the perception of teachers about
parental involvement in public schools in the Kgatleng District, Botswana) of this study.
3.4.3 Constructivism as Research Paradigm
The culture, values and social settings of the participants influence their perceptions about phenomena (Creswell, 2009). De Vos et al., (2011) state that human beings have no access to objective truth and thus individuals have no choice but to create or construct meanings and knowledge through participation in interpersonal, inter-subjective interaction.
Constructivism assumes that there are various realities, which influence people‘s lives and interaction with others. Individuals seek to understand the world in which they live and work. They develop subjective meanings to their experiences directed towards certain objects or things. Experiences are unique to individuals. These subjective meanings are negotiated socially and historically and are also formed through interaction with others and through historical and cultural norms that operate in individual‘s lives. It is therefore important to consider research participants perceptions and social realities (Creswell, 2013; Patton, 2002). Constructivism views knowledge as temporary, non-objective, internally constructed, developmental, socially and culturally mediated. Individuals are assumed to construct their own meanings and understandings, and this process is believed to involve interplay between existing knowledge and beliefs and new knowledge and experiences (Richardson, 2003; Schunk, 2004).
Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and the constructing of knowledge is based on this understanding. The constructivist perspective, therefore, posits that knowledge is not passively received from the world or from authoritative sources but constructed by individuals or groups making sense of their experiential worlds (Maclellan & Soden 2004).
Constructivism is relevant as it seeks to explore perceptions (subjective meaning) of teachers in Kgatleng District, in rural and urban areas, with regards to parental involvement or non-
involvement in public primary schools. This results in the mutual creation of knowledge by the viewer (researcher) and the viewed (participants) and it aims to interpret the understanding of the participants' meanings, which was done in chapter four of this study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000).
Social constructivism and social constructionism are postmodern theories. These concepts are often used interchangeably. Social constructivism focuses on the various realities that individual people construct. The ontology is relative and two people living in the same world may experience the same realities differently. Social constructionism focuses on constructing knowledge about reality and not reality itself as in constructivism. This knowledge is deeply rooted in the context, it is interpersonal, and it is legitimate and is based on the value base and culture of both educated and sophisticated people. Power is involved in this process as these peoples‘ views are accepted by the rest of the group as the ‗truth‘ (Patton, 2002; De Vos et al., 2013; Terre Blanche, Durrheim & Painter, 2006). Crotty in Patton (2002: 97) distinguishes between the ontology of these two concepts when they describe constructivism as ―meaning-making of the individual mind‖ and constructionism ―the collective generation and transmission of meaning.‖ In other words in this study the researcher is interested in the individual construction (unique perceptions) of the teachers therefore, constructivism. If the teachers in the rural areas display a collective worldview on the phenomenon of parental involvement in schools and the teachers in urban areas display a different view, this will then be social constructionism, where people in power in the teaching fraternity, construct meaning, which is then accepted by all teachers.