UNIT 3 NON- INTERGOVERNMENTAL NON –STATE
3.1.1 Multinational Corporations
These are also referred to as transnational corporations. Multinational corporations or enterprises are companies that produce and distribute goods and services in more than one country. A corporation that has its facilities and other assets in at least one country other than its home country, such companies have offices and/or factories in different countries and usually have a centralised head office where they co- ordinate global management. Very large multinationals have budgets that exceed those of many small countries.
Multinational corporations have been described as the “first institution in human history dedicated to centralised planning on a world scale.”
Here, the major players are the “host countries” and the “parent countries.” The host countries are the developing states and the “third world” countries while the parent countries are the developed states where the company headquarters are situated. The multinational enterprises maintain the autonomy of power through an existing structured centralised system. This centralised system of operation is maintained through the present hierarchal structure where decisions are made in the parent countries and regular reports are also sent for assessment and reviews.
There are four main types of corporations and they are the:
• Extractive multinational corporation
• Agricultural multinational corporation
• Service multinational corporation
• Industrial multinational corporation
The extractive multinational corporation: are into the extraction of mineral resources from land and from sea. They extract these mineral resources and convert them into finished products.
The agricultural multinational corporation: plant seeds, harvest the crops and process as food. They also harvest wood and turn into finished products such as paper and furniture.
The service multinational corporation: are service providers.
The industrial multinational corporation: manage, manufacture and distribute, automobiles, airplanes, home appliances, computers just to mention a few. The 1950s in political history ushered in the multinational corporation revolution. This period witnessed the growth and development of corporations worldwide. This Revolution also ushered in minimal development for host countries.
Theoretical schools of thought on multinational corporations
There are contending schools of thought on the propriety or otherwise of multinational corporations. These schools of thoughts have concerned their attention on the impact of the operations of multinational corporations in the developing countries of the world. While some of the schools condemn the operations of MNCs, others have applauded same.
These schools of thought together with their various interpretations can be categorized into three and they are:
• The Marxist – Leninist Interpretation
• The Mercantilist Interpretation
• The Liberal Interpretation
The Marxist- Leninist Interpretation
This can also be referred to as the Imperialist interpretation of the role of multinational corporations. The two major sub-players are: the capitalists and the proletariat which are the rich and the poor states. This school of thought argues that the multinational corporations are exploitative platforms through which the unsuspecting proletariat are exploited on a global corporate level.
The mercantilist interpretation
The growth of multinational corporations is an outward reflection of the West’s dominance of the world economy. It is argued that the multinational corporations encourage trade and business activities with other countries in order to create wealth in the parent or home country.
Robert Gilpin argued that “political values and security interests are the crucial determinants of international economic relations…throughout history; each successive hegemonic power has organised economic space in terms of its own interest and purposes.”
The liberal interpretation
Here, the multinational corporations are seen as independent actors and not as an exploitative platform. This school of thought argues that multinational corporations with the technology and labour and overall development can in turn help eradicate poverty in all of its host nations.
It is argued that as long as these corporations maintain autonomous control, there will be adequate welfare packages for all players. George Ball, a former undersecretary argued that the “Cosmocorp” which is a multinational corporation “has outgrown the state…” here, these businesses only desire entry into foreign markets. The ‘cosmocorps” are the “globalists’ who see the world as described by Peter Drucker “a global shopping centre.”
These differing interpretations have however not diminished the importance of multinational corporations in international relations; in fact, they have even become more important as a result of globalisation.
In effect, the transformation in telecommunication and transport technology has been useful in enhancing the effectiveness and the overall power of multinational companies. It has been argued that “the rise of the planetary multinational enterprise is producing an organisational revolution as profound in its implications for modern man as the industrial revolution and the rise of the nation state. Specifically, the existence of multinational corporation as a global non-state actor is useful on the basis of the following;
• The creation provides a platform for waiving protectionist policies and high importation tariffs. For instance, most American corporations established European subsidiaries to boycott the high tariffs placed on the importation of goods
• Boycotting these tariffs helps increase the product and service profit margin for foreign investors while creating employment opportunities in these host countries.
3.1.2 The Red Cross Society
The International Committee of the Red Cross Society, a non – governmental organisation was founded in 1863 in Geneva Switzerland by Jean-Henri Dunant. Jean-Henri Dunant in his self-published book titled “A Memory of Solferino” asked:
Would it not be possible, in time of peace and quiet, to form relief societies for the purpose of having care given to the wounded in war time by zealous, devoted and thoroughly qualified volunteers?
This non-governmental organisation won the Nobel Peace Prize Award in 1917, 1944 and 1963. There are about 97 million volunteers, members and staff worldwide. Its main focus is to provide humanitarian aid and support for those in need, protect human life and health, ensure the respect for human rights, and prevent and help reduce human suffering, during war help care for the prisoners of war and in peacetime, help care for the victims of man-made and natural disasters.
This arm of the organisation has been authorised by the “international humanitarian law to protect the life and dignity of the victims of international and internal armed conflicts”. It is an organisation whose main focus is to provide humanitarian aid and support for those in need;
various independent bodies exist within the organisation.
One of the most important arm of the Red Cross, though sharing its principles, ideologies, objectives, symbols and governing organs is the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC). The IFRC was formed in 1919. On an international level, the IFRC organises assistant missions responding to large-scale emergencies, this body exists in most countries. Each branch works as an autonomous body in the host country but still respects the tenets of the international humanitarian law. In most countries they assist the available health care services to provide emergency medical assistance when help is needed. There are currently 186 recognised National Societies.
The importance of the Red Cross society as a global brand committed to the plight of the wounded, distressed, victims of emergency and both natural and man-made disasters cannot be overemphasised. The Red Cross continually gets involved in conflicts all over the world, not as belligerents, but as an organisation responsible for taking care of humanitarian conditions that are the fall-outs of crisis. The mandate of Red Cross gives the organisation the opportunity to participate in negotiations, debates and such other forms of activities to ensure peaceful coexistence in the world.
3.1.3 The Catholic Church
The Roman Catholic Church has been categorised as the oldest non- governmental organisation in the world, with a population of 1.81 billion in 2009 according to the statistics published in the new Annuario Pontificio. To effectively propagate the gospel, the church has learned the tactics of peaceful co-existence with other faiths and government.
The church has evolved both as a religious and political institution and its influence on promoting world peace can hardly be questioned. In 1979, during the late Pope John Paul II‘s visit to Poland, the government was concerned and swayed by the huge crowd that gathered to welcome the Pope. The Catholic Church condemns poverty, oppression and the violation of human rights in every part of the world, but especially the Third World Countries. The church has also condemned the use of nuclear weapons and appealed to the developed world to help alleviate poverty in the developing worlds. In essence, the Catholic Church has a strong voice in global political, economic and social conditions. The Pope, the leader of the Catholic church and a highly respected world leader has severally made pronouncements regarding political conditions in countries all over the world, and also equally be involved in the negotiation of freedom of political prisoners in different parts of the world.
In effect therefore, the sheer population, cutting across continents, races, sexes, ages and regions of the world make it imperative for giving deserved attention to the position of the Catholic church in international politics.
3.1.4 Terrorist Groups
Terrorism is turning out as the most vicious, destructive and dangerous activity that a group can inflict on the system in contemporary international relations. A terrorist group or organisation is a political movement that uses terror as a weapon to achieve its goals and objectives. This kind of organisation thus engages in terrorist activities or terrorism. According to the United States Department of Defence, terrorism is “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear, intended to coerce or intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious or ideological”. Similarly, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation defines terrorism as: “unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives”. Robert Pillars’ definition captures the whole gamut of the activities of terrorist groups. According to the author: “Terrorism is fundamentally different from these other forms of violence, however, in what gives rise to it and in how it must be countered, beyond simple physical security and police techniques. Terrorists’ concerns are macro concerns about changing a larger order; other violent criminals are focused on the micro level of pecuniary gain and personal relationships.
‘Political’ in this regard encompasses not just traditional left-right politics but also what are frequently described as religious motivations or social issues” (Laquer, 1977).
The activities of modern terrorist groups can be traced to 1793 during the reign of Maxmilien Robespierre. His philosophy was, “subdue by terror the enemies of liberty, and you will be right as founders of liberty”. Thus, intimidation begets freedom. His views and actions laid the foundation for modern terrorism. Now terrorist groups believe that sadism and cruelty will usher in their preferred political, economic and social system. They also set out to accomplish their set goals by terrifying groups who do not support their philosophy and thus attack the symbols of the “heretics”. They destroy symbols and replicas and murder people that represent that which they oppose. For example the September 11 Attack in the US and the activities of Boko Haram in Nigeria. Terrorist groups can be identified by the form of their activities, and often times, the comments they make after inflicting destruction on the populace or the symbols they represent.
The organisational structure of a group determines its strengths and weaknesses. A general knowledge of the prevalent models of terrorist organisations leads to a better understanding of their capabilities.
Knowledge of the different labels and systems of classification that have been applied to groups and individuals aid us in discarding useless or irrelevant terms, and in determining the purpose and usefulness of each terminology.
In recent times, the popular image of a terrorist group operating according to a specific political agenda and motivated by ideology or the desire for ethnic or national liberation dominated our understanding of terrorism. While still true of some terrorist organisations, this image is no longer universally valid. Also, a generational change in leadership of established groups is in many cases ushering in a more a destructive and relentless type of organisation.
There are two general categories of organisation; hierarchical and networked. The age of an organisation is one of the determinants of whether it is likely to adopt a network or hierarchical structure. Newer groups tend towards organising or adapting to the possibilities inherent in the network model. Ideology can have an effect on internal organisation, with strict Leninist or Maoist groups tending towards centralised control and hierarchical structure. Within the larger structure, virtually all groups use variants of cellular organisations at the tactical level.
Terrorist groups that are associated with a political activity or organisation will often require a more hierarchical structure, in order to coordinate terrorist violence with political action. It also can be necessary for a politically affiliated group to observe “cease-fires” or avoid particular targets in support of political objectives. This can be difficult to enforce in networked organisations.
Terrorist groups can be at various stages of development in terms of capabilities and sophistication. Newer groups with fewer resources will usually be less capable, and operate in permissive areas or under the tutelage of more proficient organisations to develop proficiency. Also, groups professing or associated with ethnic or nationalist agendas and limiting their operations to one country or a localised region tend to require fewer capabilities. Groups can coalesce from smaller organisations, or splinter off from larger ones.
The groups can be categorised into the following:
• The ethnocentric groups: identity driven
• The nationalistic groups: some freedom fighters employed terrorist tactics
• The revolutionary groups: seeking transformation of an order
• The political groups: politically motivated
• The religious groups: deep-seated religious inclinations
• The social groups: seeking forceful change of the social order
• The domestic groups: internal agitations and antagonisms
• The transnational groups: trans-border activities
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit has been an expose on the contributions of non-state, non- intergovernmental actors in the international system. The unit explains their relevance and importance to international relations. Of all the actors examined, terrorist groups are the only violent actor, and the amorphous character of terrorism makes it a major threat to global peace and security.
5.0 SUMMARY
It is now clear that even though all parties are separate entities, all contribute in one way or the other to development of states and consequently to both the even and uneven distribution of wealth, and world peace. Non – state actors especially the non-governmental organisations through mediations act as important catalysts to peace – building and peace-keeping nationally and internationally. Other non- state actors are equally relevant and participate in directing the course of international affairs, but the roles move from the violent to the peaceful.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
i. List and state the non-intergovernmental non-state actors discussed in this unit.
ii. What are the defining features of these non-intergovernmental non- state actors?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Laqueur, W. (1977). Terrorism. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
Stanley, M. (1979). Managing Global Problems. Iowa City: University of Iowa.